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Unas

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This article is about the king of ancient Egypt. For other uses, seeUnas (disambiguation).

Unas
Oenas, Onnos, Unis, Wenis
Unas being suckled by an unknown goddess. Egyptian Museum
Unas being suckled by an unknown goddess.Egyptian Museum
Pharaoh
Reignduration uncertain; 15 to 30 years in the mid-24th century BC.[a]
PredecessorDjedkare Isesi
SuccessorTeti
Royal titulary
Horus name
Wadjtawy[12][13]
W3ḏ-t3.w(j)
Flourishing of the Two Lands
Alternative translation:
The sturdy one of the Two Lands[14]
G5
M13N19
Nebty name
Wadjemnebty[12][13]
W3ḏ-m-nb.tj
He who flourishes through the Two Ladies
G16
M13G17
Golden Horus
Bik-nebw-Wadj[12][13]
Bjk-nb.w-w3ḏ
The golden falcon who flourishes
M13G5
S12
Prenomen (Praenomen)
Unas[12]
Wnjs
Translation uncertain:
Behold the being[15](if Unas is readAs-un)
The swift one(name of the goddess Wenet)
The one who truly exists[16]
M23
t		L2
t		<
G39N5E34
N35		M17S29
>
Nomen
Unas[12][13]
wnjs
Translation uncertain:
Behold the being[15](if Unas is readAs-un)
The swift one(name of the goddess Wenet)
The one who truly exists[16]
<
G39N5E34
N35		M17S29
>

Hieroglyphic variant:
<
E34
N35		M17S29
>
ConsortNebet,Khenut
ChildrenHemetre Hemi♀,Khentkaues♀,Neferut♀,Nefertkaues Iku♀,Sesheshet Idut♀.
Uncertain: Unas-ankh♂,Iput♀.
Conjectured: Nebkauhor♂,Shepsespuptah♂.
Fatherpossibly Djedkare Isesi
Motherpossibly Setibhor
BurialPyramid of Unas
DynastyFifth Dynasty

Unas/ˈjuːnəs/orWenis,also spelledUnis(Ancient Egyptian:wnjs,hellenizedformOenas/ˈiːnəs/orOnnos), was apharaoh,the ninth and last ruler of theFifth Dynasty of Egyptduring theOld Kingdom.Unas reigned for 15 to 30 years in the mid-24th century BC(circa 2345–2315 BC), succeedingDjedkare Isesi,who might have been his father.

Little is known of Unas' activities during his reign, which was a time of economic decline. Egypt maintained trade relations with theLevantinecoast andNubia,and military action may have taken place in southernCanaan.The growth and decentralization of the administration in conjunction with the lessening of the king's power continued under Unas, ultimately contributing to the collapse of the Old Kingdom some 200 years later.

Unas built apyramidinSaqqara,the smallest of the royalpyramidscompleted during the Old Kingdom. The accompanying mortuary complex with its high and valley temples linked by a 750-metre-long (2,460 ft) causeway was lavishly decorated with painted reliefs, whose quality and variety surpass the usual royal iconography.[5]Furthermore, Unas was the first pharaoh to have thePyramid Textscarved and painted on the walls of the chambers of his pyramid, a major innovation that was followed by his successors until theFirst Intermediate Period(c. 2160– c. 2050 BC). These texts identify the king withRaand withOsiris,whose cult was on the rise in Unas' time, and were meant to help the king reach theafterlife.

Unas had several daughters and possibly one or two sons who are believed to have predeceased him.Manetho,a third-century BC Egyptian priest of thePtolemaic Kingdomand author of the first history of Egypt, claims that with Unas' death the Fifth Dynasty came to an end. Unas was succeeded byTeti,the first pharaoh of theSixth Dynasty,possibly after a short crisis. However, the archaeological evidence suggests that the Egyptians at the time made no conscious break with the preceding dynasty and the distinction between the Fifth and Sixth dynasties might be illusory.

Thefunerary cultof Unas established at his death continued until the end of the Old Kingdom and may have survived during the chaotic First Intermediate Period. The cult was still in existence or revived during the laterMiddle Kingdom(c. 2050 – c. 1650 BC). This did not preventAmenemhat IandSenusret I(c. 1990 – c. 1930 BC) from partially dismantling the mortuary complex of Unas for its materials.

In parallel to the official cult, Unas may have received popular veneration as a local god of Saqqara until as late as theLate Period(664–332 BC), nearly 2000 years after his death.

Attestations[edit]

Historical sources[edit]

Unas is well attested by historical sources with three ancient Egyptian king lists dating to theNew Kingdomperiod mentioning him.[17]He occupies the 33rd entry of theAbydos King List,which was written during the reign ofSeti I(1290–1279 BC). Unas' name is also present on theSaqqara Tablet(32nd entry)[18]and on theTurin canon(third column, 25th row), both of which were written during the reign ofRamses II(1279–1213 BC).[17]The Turin canon further credits Unas with 30 years of reign.[17][19]These sources all place Unas as the ninth and final ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, succeedingDjedkare Isesiand precedingTetion the throne.[20]This relative chronology is corroborated by archaeological evidence, for example in the tomb of officials serving under these kings.[21]

In addition to these sources, Unas was also likely mentioned in theAegyptiaca,a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign ofPtolemy II(283–246 BC) by the Egyptian priestManetho.No copies of theAegyptiacahave survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings bySextus Julius AfricanusandEusebius.Africanus relates that theAegyptiacamentioned a pharaoh "Onnos" reigning for 33 years at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. Onnos is believed to be thehellenizedform for Unas, and Africanus' 33-year figure fits well with the 30 years of reign given to Unas on the Turin canon.[17]

Contemporaneous sources[edit]

A yellow spherical jar inscribed with a falcon wrapping around the circumference.
Alabasterglobular vase of Unas, Louvre[22]

The primary contemporaneous sources attesting to Unas' activities are the many reliefs from hispyramid complex.Excluding these, surprisingly few documents dating to Unas' reign have survived to this day, considering the 30-year length that later records give for his reign. Excavations atAbusir,the royal necropolis of the Fifth Dynasty, have produced only four dated inscriptions safely attributable to Unas. They explicitly mention his third, fourth, sixth and eighth years on the throne.[23]Unas also left a rock inscription on the island ofElephantine,next to theFirst Cataractof the Nile inNubia.[24]

In addition, several alabaster vases bearing Unas' cartouche are known. A complete vessel and additional fragments originating fromByblos[13]on the Levantine coast are now in theNational Museum of Beirut.[25]A vase of unknown provenance is located in theNational Archaeological MuseumofFlorenceand reads "Horus Wadjtawy, living eternally, king of Upper and Lower Egypt, son of Ra, Unas, living eternally".[26][27][b]Another vessel, of unknown origins, is on display at theLouvre Museum.It is a 17-centimetre-tall (6.7 in), 13.2-centimetre-wide (5.2 in) globular alabaster vase finely decorated with a falcon with outstretched wings and twouraei,or rearing cobras, holding ankh signs surrounding Unas' cartouche.[22]An ointment jar bearing Unas' cartouche and Horus name is in theBrooklyn Museum.[29]Finally, a fragment of a calcite vase rim bearing two cartouches of Unas is on display in thePetrie Museum.[30][c]

Reign[edit]

Family[edit]

Unas assumed the throne at the death of his predecessor Djedkare Isesi. Djedkare is thought to have been Unas' father,[1]in spite of the complete lack of evidence bearing on the question.[32]The succession from Djedkare Isesi to Unas seems to have been smooth.[33]

Unas had at least two queens,Nebet[34]andKhenut,[35]who were buried in a large doublemastabaadjacent to their husband's pyramid. Unas and Nebet possibly had a son, the "king's son", "royal chamberlain", "priest ofMaat"and"overseer of Upper Egypt"Unas-Ankh,[36]who died about 10 years into Unas' reign.[37]The filiation of Unas-Ankh is indirectly hinted at by his name and titles and by the presence of his tomb near those of Nebet and Unas[38]but is not universally accepted.[39][40][d]Two other sons have been proposed, Nebkauhor[42]and Shepsespuptah,[43]but these filiations are conjectural and contested.[44]Unas likely died without a male heir.[44]

Unas had at least five daughters named Hemetre Hemi,[45]Khentkaues,[46]Neferut,[47]Nefertkaues Iku,[48]and Sesheshet Idut.[49]The status of another possible daughter,Iput,is uncertain.[50]

Duration[edit]

A seated man in a tight fitting robe, with a false beard and a crown.
Relief ofSahurewearing the tunic of theSed festival,[51]similar to the relief depicting Unas' Sed festival from his mortuary complex[52]

The duration of Unas' reign is uncertain. As indicated above, historical sources credit him with 30 and 33 years on the throne, figures that have been adopted by many Egyptologists, includingFlinders Petrie,[53]William C. Hayes,[54]Darrell Baker,[13]Peter Munro,[55]and Jaromir Malek.[5]In favor of such a long reign are scenes[56]of aSed festivalfound in Unas' mortuary temple.[57][1]This festival was normally celebrated only after 30 years of reign and was meant to rejuvenate the pharaoh's strength and power. Mere depictions of the festival do not necessarily imply a long reign, however. For example, a relief showing pharaohSahurein the tunic of the Sed festival has been found in his mortuary temple,[51][58]although both historical sources and archeological evidence agree that he ruled Egypt for less than 14 full years.[59][9][10]

Other Egyptologists suspect a reign of less than 30 years for Unas, owing to the scarcity of artefacts datable to his reign as well as the lack of documents dated to beyond his eighth year on the throne.[60]Hence,Jürgen von Beckerathbelieves that Unas ruled Egypt for 20 years[9]while Rolf Krauss, David Warburton andErik Hornungshortened this number to 15 years in their 2012 study ofEgyptian chronology.[10]Krauss andMiroslav Vernerfurther question the credibility of the Turin Canon concerning theFourthand Fifth Dynasties, so that the 30-year figure credited to Unas by the canon might not be reliable.[61]

Excavations[62]of the tomb of Nikau-Isesi under the direction ofNaguib Kanawatiat Saqqara have yielded evidence in support of a shorter reign.[63]Nikau-Isesi was an official who started his career during the reign of Djedkare Isesi. He lived through that of Unas and died as overseer of Upper-Egypt under Unas' successor Teti.[21]Nikau-Isesi is known to have died on the year of the eleventhcattle countduring Teti's reign, an event consisting of counting the livestock throughout the country to evaluate the amount of taxes to be levied. It is traditionally believed that such counts occurred every two years during the Old Kingdom and every year during the laterMiddle Kingdom(c. 2055– c. 1650 BC).[21]Thus, Nikau-Isesi would have lived for 22 years after Teti took the throne and together with the 30 years of reign credited to Unas, would have died past 70 years old.[21]However, forensic examination of his mummy yielded an age at death of no more than 45 years old. This suggests that the cattle count occurred more than once every two years during Unas and Teti's time, possibly irregularly. If so, Unas' 30-year figure on the Turin canon, understood to mean 15 cattle counts, could translate into as little as 15 years, which together with just 11 years during Teti's reign would account for Nikau-Isesi's death at around 40 to 45 years of age.[21]

Activities[edit]

A man standing surrounded by columns of hieroglyphs.
Drawing[53]of the rock inscription of Unas onElephantine[e]
Trade and warfare

Owing to the scarcity of evidence dating to Unas' reign, we know very little about his activities.[13]Existing trade relations with foreign countries and cities, in particular Byblos,[66]seem to have continued during Unas' time on the throne. Reliefs from the causeway of his pyramid complex show two large seagoing ships coming back from an expedition to theLevantinecoast with Syro-Canaanite men, who were either the boat crews or slaves.[67][68]Another relief depicts a military campaign,[69]Egyptians armed with bows and daggers attacking Canaanite nomads called theShasu.[70]Similar reliefs have been found in preceding pyramid complexes, such asthat of Sahure,and they may thus be standard themes rather than depictions of actual events.[69]Other sources tend to confirm the accuracy of these depictions; for example, theautobiography of Wenirelates many punitive raids against Canaanite nomads in the early Sixth Dynasty.[69][71]

To the South of Egypt, inscriptions of Unas on Elephantine record a visit of the king to Lower Nubia, possibly to receive tribute from local chieftains[57]or because of growing unrest in the region.[72]In addition, a relief from the causeway of Unas leading to his pyramid shows a giraffe, suggesting trade relations with Nubia.[73]

Domestic
Prostrated people, their ribs showing, look wearily to the ground.
Relief showing starving nomads from Unas' causeway at Saqqara

Unas' reign was a time of economic decline[72]although, as the French EgyptologistNicolas Grimalwrites, it was "by no means a time of decadence".[32]Indeed, the Egyptian state was still capable of mounting important expeditions to provide building stones for the king's pyramid complex.[1]These expeditions are depicted on unique reliefs found in Unas' causeway[74][75][1]and are also referred to in the autobiographical stela of an administration official.[76][f]This official reports the transport of 10.40-metre-tall (34.1-foot) palmiform[g]columns of red granite from Elephantine to Saqqara in only four days, a feat for which he was praised by the king.[76]In addition to the important construction works undertaken in Saqqara for the construction of his pyramid complex, building activities also took place on Elephantine.[32]

Until 1996, the domestic situation during Unas' reign was thought to have been disastrous, based on reliefs from the causeway of his pyramid complex showing emaciated people and thus suggesting times of famine.[4][78]This changed when excavations at Abusir in 1996 yielded similar reliefs in the mortuary complex of Sahure, who reigned at a prosperous time in the early Fifth Dynasty.[79]In addition, research showed that the starving people are likely to be desert dwellers, nomads distinguished by their specific hair-style, rather than Egyptians.[80]Thus, these reliefs are now understood to be standard representations of the generosity of the king towards the destitute and of the hardships of life in the desert regions bordering Egypt[81]rather than referring to actual events.[80]

Death and end of a dynasty[edit]

In his history of Egypt, Manetho states that with the death of Unas the Fifth Dynasty came to an end.[32]This may be because Unas died without a male heir,[72]his probable son Unas-Ankh having predeceased him. This might have caused a succession crisis[72]hinted at by the personal name chosen by Teti upon his accession to the throne: "Seheteptawy" meaning "He who reconciles/pacifies the two lands".[32][72]Teti's claim to the throne could have relied on his marriage to Iput, who may have been a daughter of Unas.[82][83][84]This possibility is heavily debated, as the interpretation of Iput's titles that would indicate that she was the daughter of a king is uncertain.[h][50]Furthermore, the idea that Teti could legitimate his claim by marrying into the royal family is rejected by many Egyptologists, including Munro, Dobrev,Baud,Mertz, Pirenne, and Robin, who do not think that the right to the pharaonic throne passed through the female line.[85]

In addition to Manetho's statement, the Turin king list presents a special break point between Unas and his successor Teti. Although the king list is not organized in dynasties–which were invented by Manetho–the Egyptologist Jaromir Malek explains that "the criterion for such divisions in the Turin Canon invariably was the change of location of the capital and royal residence."[83]Malek thus suggests that the capital of Egypt, then known as Inbu-Hedj,[i]was indeed supplanted at the time by settlements located to the South, East of South Saqqara, where Unas' palace may have been located. In the second millennium BC these cities finally merged and gave rise toMemphis.[87][j]

Whatever the basis for Manetho's choice to end the Fifth Dynasty with Unas, Egyptians living at the time probably perceived no particular change from one dynasty to the next.[32]The administration of the state shows no evidence of disturbances, with many officials continuing their careers from Unas' onto Teti's reign.[32]These include the viziersMehu,Kagemniand Nikau-Isesi and the overseer of the province ofEdfuIsi.[88]Given that the Egyptians of the Old Kingdom might not have conceived of dynasties,[89]the distinction between the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties might be illusory.[32]

Evolution of religion and kingship[edit]

The reigns of Djedkare Isesi and of Unas were a time of changes inAncient Egyptian religionand in the ideology of kingship, changes that are first demonstrable under Unas.[90]A statistical analysis of clay seal fragments bearingHorus namesof pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty points to a marked decline of the cult of the king during Unas' time on the throne.[91]This continued under Unas' successor Teti, for whom we know only two seals bearing his Horus name.[92]This trend reflects the lessening of the king's power in conjunction with the growth of the administration and priesthood.[72]

Meanwhile, the cult ofOsiriswas becoming more important[93]with this god replacing the king as the guarantor of life after death for the pharaoh's subjects.[83][94]The German EgyptologistHartwig Altenmüllerwrites that for an Egyptian of the time "the [...] afterlife no longer depends on the relationship between the individual mortal and the king, [...] instead it is linked to his ethical position in direct relation to Osiris".[94]In contrast, the cult of the sun godRawas in apparent decline,[95]even though Ra was still the most important deity of the Egyptian pantheon.[94]Thus, Djedkare Isesi and Unas did not build asun templein contrast with most of their Fifth Dynasty predecessors.[93][96]In addition, the names of Menkauhor Kaiu and Unas do not incorporate any reference to Ra, in rupture with a tradition which held since the reign ofUserkaf,about a century earlier. ThePyramid Textsfound in Unas' pyramid demonstrate the importance of Osiris and Ra in ancient Egyptian religion at the time. Both gods were believed to play the key roles in accessing the afterlife, with Ra as the source of life and Osiris as the force through which the next life would be attained.[97][k]

Pyramid complex[edit]

A ruined mass of bricks, sand and rocks resembling an earthen mound
Thepyramid of Unasat Saqqara
Main article:Pyramid of Unas

Unas had a pyramid built for himself in NorthSaqqara,between thepyramid of Sekhemkhetand the southwestern corner of thepyramid complex of Djoser,in symmetry with thepyramid of Userkaflocated at the northeastern corner.[101]In the process, workers leveled and covered older tombs located in the area,[1]most notably the tomb of theSecond DynastypharaohHotepsekhemwy(c. 2890 BC).[101]

The original Egyptian name of the pyramid was "Nefer Isut Unas", meaning "Beautiful are the places of Unas".[102]The pyramid of Unas is the smallest[101]of the pyramids completed during the Old Kingdom, having a square base of 57.7 m × 57.7 m (189 ft × 189 ft) for a height of 43 m (141 ft).[101][102]

Mortuary complex[edit]

A paved way of white limestone covered with a roof made of massive stone blocks resting on equally massive walls.
A restored section of the causeway of Unas

The pyramid of Unas is part of a larger mortuary complex built around it. It was approached via an ancient lake[103]on the shores of which Unas' valley temple was located. This temple received the provisions for the cult of the king and the offerings to be made were prepared there. At the back of the valley temple was the beginning of a 750-metre (2,460-foot) causeway, equaled only by that ofKhufu,[101]and leading to an upper temple adjacent to the pyramid. A thin slit in the roof of the causeway allowed the light to illuminate its walls covered for their entire length in painted reliefs. These depicted the Egyptian seasons, processions of people from the nomes of Egypt, craftsmen at work, offerings bearers, battle scenes and the transport of granite columns for the construction of the pyramid complex.[104]

At the end of the causeway was a large hall leading to a pillared open court surrounded by magazine chambers.[104]The court led into the mortuary temple proper which housed statues of the king and where the offerings to the deceased took place.[104]This was immediately adjacent to the eastern side of the pyramid, which was surrounded by an enclosure wall defining the sacred space. At the southeast corner of the enclosure was a small satellite pyramid for the Ka of the king.[101]The internal chambers of the pyramid were entered in 1881 byGaston Maspero,who thus discovered the pyramid texts. The burial chamber housed nothing but a black greywacke[105]sarcophagus sunk into the floor and a canopic chest. The sarcophagus proved to contain scattered bones, which may belong to Unas.[101]

Pyramid Texts[edit]

Main article:Pyramid Texts
A large chamber of stone, its walls entirely covered with thousands of hieroglyphs.
ThePyramid Textsinscribed on the walls of Unas' burial chamber

The main innovation of the pyramid of Unas is the first appearance of thePyramid Texts,[5]one of the oldest religious texts in Egypt to have survived to this day.[l]In doing so, Unas initiated a tradition that would be followed in the pyramid of the kings and queens of the Sixth to Eighth Dynasties, until the end of the Old Kingdom circa 200 years later.[107]

In total 283 magical spells,[106][m]also known as utterances, were carved and the signs painted blue on the walls of the corridor, antechamber, and burial chamber of Unas' pyramid.[109]They constitute the most complete rendition of the Pyramid Texts existing today.[110]These spells were intended to help the king in overcoming hostile forces and powers in the Underworld and thus join with the sun godRa,his divine father in the afterlife.[111]By writing the texts on the walls of the pyramid's internal chambers, the architects of Unas' pyramid ensured that the king would benefit from their potency even if the funerary cult was to cease.[1][112] Hence, the Pyramid Texts of the pyramid of Unas incorporate instructions for ritual actions and words to be spoken, suggesting that they were precisely those performed and recited during the cult of the king in his mortuary temple.[113]

The good preservation of the texts in Unas' pyramid shows that they were arranged so as to be read by theBaof Unas, as it arose from the sarcophagus thanks to resurrection utterances and surrounded by protective spells and ritual offerings.[110][114]The Ba would then leave the burial chamber, which incorporates texts identifying the king with Osiris in theDuat,and would move to the antechamber symbolizing theAkhet.Included in the spells written on the walls of the antechamber of Unas are two utterances known as theCannibal Hymn,which portrays the pharaoh as flying to heaven through a stormy sky and eating both gods and men. In doing so the king would receive the life force of the gods.[110][n][o]At this point the Ba of Unas would face east, the direction of the sunrise, and beyond the pyramid masonry, thefalse doorof the mortuary temple where funerary rituals were performed. Finally, turning left the Ba would join Ra in the sky by passing through the pyramid corridor.[110]

An example of a spell from the pyramid of Unas is Utterance 217:[111]

Re-Atum, this Unas comes to you
A spirit indestructible
Your son comes to you
This Unas comes to you
May you cross the sky united in the dark
May you rise in lightland, the place in which you shine!

Legacy[edit]

A small seal in the shape of a scarab inscribed with hieroglyphs spelling the name Unas.
Scarabbearing Unas' name[117]

Unas' most immediate legacy is his funerary cult, which continued at least until the end of the Old Kingdom. This cult is attested by the tombs at Saqqara of seven priests responsible for the religious duties to be performed in the funerary complex. Three of these tombs date to the early Sixth Dynasty in the time following the death of Pepi I. Three more tombs date to the reign ofPepi IIand the last one dates to the very end of the Old Kingdom (c. 2180 BC). The priests of the cult of Unas adopted basilophorous names, incorporating that of the king, possibly upon taking office.[118]

Unas' funerary cult appears to have survived during the chaoticFirst Intermediate Perioduntil the Middle Kingdom.[119]By the time of the12th Dynasty(c. 1990–c. 1800 BC), the lector-priest Unasemsaf[p]and his family were involved in the cult of Unas.[120][121]In spite of this, Unas' funerary complex was partially dismantled and its materials reemployed for the construction ofAmenemhat IandSenusret Iown pyramid complexes.[122][123]

In addition to his official cult, Unas was deified and became a local god of the Saqqara necropolis. Grimal attributes this directly to the grandeur of his funerary complex.[32]Malek doubts the existence of a popular cult of Unas during the Old Kingdom but acknowledges it from the Middle Kingdom onwards.[124]He attributes this Middle Kingdom revival to the geographic position of Unas' complex making it a natural gateway to the Saqqara necropolis.[125]The popular cult of the deified Unas continued for nearly 2,000 years as shown by the numerous scarabs bearing Unas' name found in Saqqara and dated from the New Kingdom (c.1550–c.1077 BC) until theLate Period(664–332 BC).[117][126][127][128]The epicenter of this cult was not the pyramid of Unas nor the associated mortuary temple but rather the statues of the king in the valley temple.[129] This activity could explain why the pyramid complex of Unas was the object of restoration works under the impulse of PrinceKhaemweset,a son ofRamesses II(1279–1213 BC).[104]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Proposed dates for Unas' reign: 2404–2374 BC,[1][2]2375–2345 BC,[3][4][5][6]2367–2347 BC,[7]2353–2323 BC,[8]2342–2322 BC,[9]2321–2306 BC[10]2312–2282 BC.[11]
  2. ^Inventory number 3253.[28]
  3. ^Reference number UC13258.[31]
  4. ^In particular the title of "king's son" was given to both actual royal sons and non-royal high officials.[41]
  5. ^The text of the inscription reads "Horus Wadjtawy, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt Unas, lord of the foreign lands, given life and dominion for ever, beloved of Khnum, given life for ever".[64][65]
  6. ^Stela CG 1433,Egyptian Museum,Cairo.[76]
  7. ^A palmiform column is a column whosecapitalhas the form ofpalm leaves.This style is for example present in the mortuary complex of king Sahure.[77]
  8. ^Iput held the title ofz3t nswt-bjtj,which literally means "Daughter of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt". However, this title could equally well be a variant ofz3t-ntjr,meaning that she was the mother of a king (Pepi I)[50]
  9. ^Inbu-Hedj means "White Walls".[86]
  10. ^From "Mennefer", meaning "Perfect and enduring", the name of the pyramid ofPepi Inext to which Mennefer was located.[86]
  11. ^Another important religious work, the Memphite Theology, may have been written during the reign of Unas.[72]The Memphite Theology is a story of the creation of the world and of the religious and social order of ancient Egypt through the word and will of the godPtah.The king himself is described as the personified Horus and an aspect of Ptah.[98]It is now widely believed, however, that this theological text dates to either to the 19th Dynasty or to the much later25th Dynasty(760–656 BC).[99][100]
  12. ^Note that the archaic style of certain sections of thePyramid Textsindicate that these are much older than Unas' reign.[106]
  13. ^The number reported differs from scholar to scholar. Clayton mentions 228 spells;[108]Allen gives 236.[107]
  14. ^While most historians believe that it is unlikely that Unas himself engaged in cannibalism, the EgyptologistErnest Alfred Wallis Budgeproposed that the Cannibal Hymn may harken back to an earlier time in Egyptian history when cannibalism was in fact practiced.[115]
  15. ^This inspired the Americantechnical death metalbandNile,which recorded an 11:43-long song titled "Unas, Slayer of the Gods" based on the Cannibal Hymn. It appears on their 2002 albumIn Their Darkened Shrines.[116]
  16. ^Unasemsaf means "Unas is his protection".

References[edit]

  1. ^abcdefgAltenmüller 2001,p. 600.
  2. ^Hawass & Senussi 2008,p. 10.
  3. ^Clayton 1994,p. 60.
  4. ^abRice 1999,p. 213.
  5. ^abcdMalek 2000a,p. 102.
  6. ^Lloyd 2010,p. xxxiv.
  7. ^Strudwick 2005,p. xxx.
  8. ^Arnold 1999.
  9. ^abcvon Beckerath 1999,p. 283.
  10. ^abcHornung 2012,p. 491.
  11. ^Dodson & Hilton 2004,p. 288.
  12. ^abcdeBarsanti 1901,p. 254.
  13. ^abcdefgBaker 2008,p. 482.
  14. ^Leprohon 2013,p. 40.
  15. ^abPetrie 1917,p. 18 & p. 63.
  16. ^abLeprohon 2013,p. 41, footnote 65.
  17. ^abcdBaker 2008,pp. 482–483.
  18. ^Mariette 1864,p. 15.
  19. ^Gardiner 1959,pl. II & Col. III num. 25.
  20. ^von Beckerath 1999,pp. 60–61, king no. 9.
  21. ^abcdeKanawati 2001,pp. 1–2.
  22. ^abZiegler in Allenet al.1999,pp. 361–362, "123. Jar inscribed with the name of king Unis".
  23. ^Verner 2001a,pp. 410–411.
  24. ^Petrie 1907,p. 84 & fig. 49 p. 82.
  25. ^Porter, Moss & Burney 1951,p. 390.
  26. ^Guidotti 1991,p. 82, no. 18.
  27. ^Vase of Unas 2015.
  28. ^Touring Club Italiano 1993,p. 352.
  29. ^Brooklyn Museum Catalog 2015.
  30. ^Brunton 2015.
  31. ^Digital Egypt 2000.
  32. ^abcdefghiGrimal 1992,p. 80.
  33. ^Baud 1999,p. 563.
  34. ^Baud 1999,p. 489.
  35. ^Baud 1999,p. 545.
  36. ^Williams 1981,p. 31.
  37. ^Onderka 2009,p. 166.
  38. ^Baud 1999,p. 422.
  39. ^Schmitz 1976,p. 31 & 89.
  40. ^Onderka 2009,p. 150 & pp. 167–170.
  41. ^Onderka 2009,pp. 149–150.
  42. ^Munro 1993,pp. 20–33.
  43. ^Baud 1999,pp. 580–582.
  44. ^abOnderka 2009,p. 170.
  45. ^Baud 1999,p. 519.
  46. ^Dodson & Hilton 2004,p. 64.
  47. ^Baud 1999,p. 499.
  48. ^Baud 1999,pp. 496–497.
  49. ^Baud 1999,pp. 564–565.
  50. ^abcBaud 1999,pp. 410–411.
  51. ^abBorchardt 1913,Blatt 45.
  52. ^Labrousse, Lauer & Leclant 1977,p. 86, fig. 57.
  53. ^abPetrie 1907,p. 82.
  54. ^Hayes 1978,p. 58.
  55. ^Munro 1993,p. 8ff.
  56. ^Labrousse, Lauer & Leclant 1977,p. 85, fig. 56 & p. 86 fig. 57.
  57. ^abBaker 2008,p. 483.
  58. ^Richter 2013.
  59. ^Rice 1999,p. 173.
  60. ^Verner 2001a,p. 411.
  61. ^Verner 2001a,p. 416.
  62. ^Kanawati & ʻAbd-ar-Rāziq 2000.
  63. ^Verner 2001a,p. 412.
  64. ^Strudwick 2005,p. 133, num. 48.
  65. ^Sethe 1903,entry 69.
  66. ^Malek 2000a,p. 106.
  67. ^Hayes 1978,p. 67.
  68. ^Wachsmann 1998,p. 12 & p. 18.
  69. ^abcMalek 2000a,p. 105.
  70. ^Stevenson Smith 1971,p. 189.
  71. ^Lichtheim 1973,pp. 18–23.
  72. ^abcdefgVerner 2001b,p. 590.
  73. ^Stevenson Smith 1971,p. 188.
  74. ^Landström 1970,p. 62, fig. 185.
  75. ^Lehner 1997,p. 202.
  76. ^abcFischer 1975.
  77. ^Lehner 1997,pp. 142–144.
  78. ^Dodson 1995,pp. 38–39.
  79. ^Hawass & Verner 1996,pp. 184–185.
  80. ^abZiegler in Allenet al.1999,pp. 360, "122. Starving bedouin".
  81. ^Coulon 2008,p. 2.
  82. ^Stevenson Smith 1971,p. 190.
  83. ^abcMalek 2000a,p. 103.
  84. ^Baker 2008,p. 461.
  85. ^Baud & Dobrev 1995,p. 58.
  86. ^abJeffreys 2001,p. 373.
  87. ^Malek 2000a,p. 104.
  88. ^Altenmüller 2001,p. 602.
  89. ^Baud & Dobrev 1995,pp. 55–58.
  90. ^Goedicke 1971,p. 155.
  91. ^Verner 2001a,pp. 408–409.
  92. ^Verner 2001a,p. 409.
  93. ^abDorman 2015.
  94. ^abcAltenmüller 2001,p. 601.
  95. ^Verner 2001b,p. 589.
  96. ^Verner 2003,p. 84.
  97. ^Allen & Der Manuelian 2005,pp. 7–8, The Function of the Pyramid Texts.
  98. ^Arieh Tobin 2001,p. 471.
  99. ^Arieh Tobin 2001,p. 470.
  100. ^Ockinga 2010,p. 113.
  101. ^abcdefgLehner 1997,p. 154.
  102. ^abGrimal 1992,p. 118, Table 3.
  103. ^Lehner 1997,p. 83.
  104. ^abcdLehner 1997,p. 155.
  105. ^Verner 2001d,p. 334.
  106. ^abLehner 1997,pp. 154–155.
  107. ^abAllen 2001,p. 95.
  108. ^Clayton 1994,p. 63.
  109. ^Verner 2001c,p. 92.
  110. ^abcdLehner 1997,p. 33.
  111. ^abOakes & Gahlin 2002,p. 94.
  112. ^Lehner 1997,p. 95.
  113. ^Lehner 1997,pp. 32–33.
  114. ^Allen 2001,p. 96.
  115. ^Budge 1988,p. 323.
  116. ^Music Song Lyrics 2015,Nile Unas Slayer Of The Gods lyrics.
  117. ^abPetrie 1917,Plate IX & p. 34,see the scarabs.
  118. ^Altenmüller 1974,pp. 3–4.
  119. ^Morales 2006,p. 314.
  120. ^Moussa 1971.
  121. ^Moussa & Altenmüller 1975.
  122. ^Goedicke 1971.
  123. ^Malek 2000b,p. 257.
  124. ^Malek 2000b,pp. 250–251.
  125. ^Malek 2000b,p. 256.
  126. ^Newberry 2003,Plate IV. Scarabs 32, 33 & 34.
  127. ^MFA Online catalog 2015.
  128. ^MMA Online catalog 2015.
  129. ^Gundlach 2001,p. 375.

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