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Unequal treaties
Chinese name
Traditional ChineseHiệp ước không bình đẳng
Simplified ChineseHiệp ước không bình đẳng
Korean name
Hangul불평등 조약
HanjaHiệp ước không bình đẳng
Japanese name
KanjiHiệp ước không bình đẳng

Theunequal treatieswere a series of agreements made between Asian countries (includingChinaandKorea) and foreign powers (including theUnited Kingdom,France,Germany,theUnited States,Russia,andJapan) during the 19th and early 20th centuries.[1]They were often signed following a military defeat suffered by the former party, or amid military threats made by the latter. Their terms specified obligations to be borne almost exclusively by the former party: provisions included the cession of territory, the payment of reparations, the opening oftreaty ports,the relinquishment of the right to controltariffsand imports, and the granting ofextraterritorialityto foreign citizens.[2]

With the rise ofChinese nationalismandanti-imperialismin the 1920s, both theKuomintangand theChinese Communist Partyused the concept to characterize the Chinese experience of losingsovereigntybetween roughly 1840 to 1950. The term "unequal treaty" became associated with the concept of China's "century of humiliation",especially theconcessions to foreign powersand the loss oftariffautonomy throughtreaty ports.

Japanese and Koreans also use the term to refer to several treaties that resulted in a reduction of their national sovereignty. Japan and China signed treaties with Korea like theJapan–Korea Treaty of 1876andChina–Korea Treaty of 1882,with each granting privileges to the former parties concerning Korea.

China

[edit]
A French political cartoon in 1898,China – the cake of Kings and Emperors,showingQueen VictoriaofBritain,Kaiser Wilhelm IIofGermany,Tsar Nicholas IIofRussia,MarianneofFranceandJapaneseEmperor MeijidividingChinaruled byEmperor Guangxu."Kiao-Tchéou"and"Port-Arthur,"written on slices of the cake, represent those locations in China; a stereotypedmandarinreacts with horror in the background.
TheEight-Nation Allianceinside the Chinese imperial palace, theForbidden City,during a celebration ceremony after the signing of theBoxer Protocol,1901

In China, the term "unequal treaties" first came into use in the early 1920s to describe the historical treaties, still imposed on the then-Republic of China,that were signed through the period of time which the American sinologistJohn K. Fairbankcharacterized as the "treaty century" which began in the 1840s.[3]The term was popularized bySun Yat-sen.[4]: 53 

In assessing the term's usage in rhetorical discourse since the early 20th century, American historian Dong Wang notes that "while the phrase has long been widely used, it nevertheless lacks a clear and unambiguous meaning" and that there is "no agreement about the actual number of treaties signed between China and foreign countries that should be counted as unequal."[3]However, within the scope of Chinese historiographical scholarship, the phrase has typically been defined to refer to the many cases in which China was effectively forced to pay large amounts of financialreparations,open up ports for trade, cede or lease territories (such asOuter ManchuriaandOuter Northwest China(includingZhetysu) to theRussian Empire,Hong KongandWeihaiweito the United Kingdom,Guangzhouwanto France,Kwantung Leased TerritoryandTaiwanto theEmpire of Japan,theJiaozhou Bay concessionto theGerman Empireand concession territory inTientsin,Shamian,Hankou,Shanghaietc.), and make various other concessions of sovereignty to foreignspheres of influence,following military threats.[5]

The Chinese-American sinologistImmanuel Hsustates that the Chinese viewed the treaties they signed with Western powers and Russia as unequal "because they were not negotiated by nations treating each other as equals but were imposed on China after a war, and because they encroached upon China's sovereign rights... which reduced her to semicolonial status".[6]

The earliest treaty later referred to as "unequal" was the 1841Convention of Chuenpinegotiations during theFirst Opium War.The first treaty between theQing dynastyandthe United Kingdomtermed "unequal" was theTreaty of Nanjingin 1842.[5]

Following Qing China's defeat, treaties with Britain opened up five ports to foreign trade, while also allowing foreignmissionaries,at least in theory, to reside within China. Foreign residents in the port cities were afforded trials by their own consular authorities rather than theChinese legal system,a concept termedextraterritoriality.[5]Under the treaties, the UK and the US established theBritish Supreme Court for China and JapanandUnited States Court for ChinainShanghai.

Chinese post-World War I resentment

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AfterWorld War I,patriotic consciousness in China focused on the treaties, which now became widely known as "unequal treaties." TheNationalist Partyand theChinese Communist Partycompeted to convince the public that their approach would be more effective.[5]Germany was forced to terminate its rights, the Soviet Union surrendered them, and the United States organized theWashington Conferenceto negotiate them.[7]

AfterChiang Kai-shekdeclared a new national government in 1927, the Western powers quickly offered diplomatic recognition, arousing anxiety in Japan.[7]The new government declared to the Great Powers that China had been exploited for decades under unequal treaties, and that the time for such treaties was over, demanding they renegotiate all of them on equal terms.[8]

Towards the end of the unequal treaties

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After theBoxer Rebellionand the signing of theAnglo-Japanese Allianceof 1902, Germany began to reassess its policy approach towards China. In 1907 Germany suggested a trilateral German-Chinese-American agreement that never materialised. Thus China entered the new era of ending unequal treaties on March 14, 1917, when it broke off diplomatic relations with Germany, thereby terminating the concessions it had given that country, withChina declaring war on Germanyon August 17, 1917.[9]

As World War I commenced, these acts voided the unequal treaty of 1861, resulting in the reinstatement of Chinese control on the concessions of Tianjin and Hankou to China. In 1919, the post-war peace negotiations failed to return the territories in Shandong, previously under German colonial control, back to theRepublic of China.After it was determined that the Japanese forces occupying those territories since 1914 would be allowed to retain them under theTreaty of Versailles,the Chinese delegateWellington Koorefused to sign the peace agreement, with China being the only conference member to boycott the signing ceremony. Widely perceived in China as a betrayal of the country's wartime contributions by the other conference members, the domestic backlash following the failure to restore Shandong would cause the collapse of the cabinet of theDuan Qiruigovernment and lead to theMay 4th movement.[10][11]

On May 20, 1921, China secured with the German-Chinese peace treaty (Deutsch-chinesischer Vertrag zur Wiederherstellung des Friedenszustandes) a diplomatic accord which was considered the first equal treaty between China and a European nation.[9]

Many treaties China considered unequal were repealed during theSecond Sino-Japanese War(1937-1945). After theJapanese attack on Pearl Harborin 1941, China became an ally with the United Kingdom and the United States, which then signed treaties with China to end British and Americanextraterritorialityin January 1943.[12]Significant examples outlasted World War II: treaties regardingHong Kongremained in place untilHong Kong's 1997 handover,though in 1969, to improveSino-Soviet relationsin the wake ofmilitary skirmishes along their border,the People's Republic of China was forced to reconfirm the 1858Treaty of Aigunand 1860Treaty of Peking.[citation needed]

Japan

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When the US expeditionary fleet led byMatthew Perryreached Japan in 1854 to force open the island nation for American trade, the country was compelled to sign theConvention of Kanagawaunder thethreat of violence by the American warships.[13]This event abruptly terminated Japan's 220 years of seclusion under theSakoku policyof 1633 under unilateral foreign pressure and consequentially, the convention has been seen in a similar light as an unequal treaty.[14]

Another significant incident was theTokugawa Shogunate's capitulation to theHarris Treatyof 1858, negotiated by the eponymous U.S. envoyTownsend Harris,which, among other concessions, established a system ofextraterritorialityfor foreign residents. This agreement would then serve as a model for similar treaties to be further signed by Japan with other foreign Western powers in the weeks to follow.[15]

The enforcement of these unequal treaties were a tremendous national shock for Japan's leadership as they both curtailed Japanese sovereignty for the first time in its history and also revealed the nation's growing weakness relative to the West through the latter's successful imposition of such agreements upon the island nation. An objective towards the recovery of national status and strength would become an overarching priority for Japan, with the treaty's domestic consequences being the end of theBakufu,the 700 years of shogunate rule over Japan, and the establishment of a new imperial government.[16]

The unequal treaties ended at various times for the countries involved and Japan's victories in the 1894–95First Sino-Japanese Warconvinced many in the West that unequal treaties could no longer be enforced on Japan.[citation needed]

Korea

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Korea's first unequal treaty was not with the West, but instead with Japan. TheGanghwa Island incidentin 1875 saw Japan send the warshipUn'yōled by CaptainInoue Yoshikawith the implied threat of military action to coerce the Korean kingdom ofJoseonthrough theshow of force.After an armed clash ensued around Ganghwa Island where the Japanese force was sent, which resulted in its victory, the incident subsequently forced Korea to open its doors to Japan by signing theTreaty of Ganghwa Island,also known as theJapan–Korea Treaty of 1876.[17]

During this period Korea also signed treaties with Qing China and the West powers (such as theUnited Kingdomand theUnited States). In the case of Qing China, it signed theChina–Korea Treaty of 1882with Korea stipulating that Korea was a dependency of China and granted the Chinese extraterritoriality and other privileges,[18]and in subsequent treaties China also obtained concessions in Korea, such as theChinese concession of Incheon.[19][20]However, Qing China lost its influence over Korea following theFirst Sino-Japanese Warin 1895.[citation needed]

As Japanese dominance over the Korean peninsula grew in the following decades, with respect to the unequal treaties imposed upon the kingdom by the West powers, Korea's diplomatic concessions with those states became largely null and void in 1910, when it wasannexed by Japan.[21]

Selected list of unequal treaties

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Imposed on China

[edit]
Treaty Year Imposer Imposed on
English name Chinese name
Treaty of Nanking Nam Kinh điều ước 1842 United Kingdom Qing dynasty
Treaty of the Bogue Hổ môn điều ước 1843 United Kingdom
Treaty of Wanghia Trung mỹ vọng hạ điều ước 1844 United States
Treaty of Whampoa Hoàng bộ điều ước 1844 France
Treaty of Canton Trung thụy Quảng Châu điều ước 1847 Sweden-Norway
Treaty of Kulja Trung nga y lê tháp ngươi ba ha đài thông thương chương trình 1851 Russia
Treaty of Aigun Ái hồn điều ước 1858 Russia
Treaty of Tientsin (1858) Thiên Tân điều ước 1858 France
United Kingdom
Russia
United States
Convention of Peking Bắc Kinh điều ước 1860 United Kingdom
France
Russia
Treaty of Tientsin (1861) Trung đức thông thương điều ước 1861 Prussia,also forDeutscher Zollverein
Chefoo Convention Yên đài điều ước 1876 United Kingdom
Treaty of Livadia Ngói mấy á điều ước 1879 Russia
Treaty of Saint Petersburg Y lê điều ước 1881 Russia
Treaty of Tientsin (1885) Trung pháp tân ước 1885 France
Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking Trung bồ Bắc Kinh điều ước 1887 Portugal
Treaty of Shimonoseki (Treaty of Maguan) Mã quan điều ước 1895 Japan
Li–Lobanov Treaty Trung nga mật ước 1896 Russia
Convention for the Lease of the Liaotung Peninsula Lữ đại đất cho thuê điều ước 1898 Russia
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory Triển thác Hong Kong ranh giới chuyên điều 1898 United Kingdom
Treaty of Kwangchow Wan[fr] Quảng Châu loan Tô Giới điều ước 1899 France
Boxer Protocol Tân xấu điều ước 1901 United Kingdom
United States
Japan
Russia
France
Germany
Italy
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
Spain
Netherlands
Simla Convention Asim kéo điều ước 1914 United Kingdom Republic of China
Twenty-One Demands 21 điều 1915 Japan
Sino-Japanese Joint Defence Agreement Trung ngày cộng đồng phòng quân địch sự hiệp định 1918 Japan
Tanggu Truce Đường cô hiệp định 1933 Japan

Imposed on Japan

[edit]
Treaty Year Imposer Imposed on
English name Japanese name
Convention of Kanagawa Ngày mễ hòa thân điều ước 1854[22] United States Tokugawa shogunate
Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty Ngày anh hòa thân điều ước 1854[23] United Kingdom
Treaty of Shimoda Hạ điền điều ước 1855 Russia
Ansei Treaties
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan(Harris Treaty) An chính điều ước 1858[24] United States
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Japan Netherlands
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Russian Empire and Japan Russia
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between British Empire and Japan United Kingdom
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan France
Prussian-Japanese Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation Ngày phổ tu hảo thông thương điều ước 1861[25] Prussia
Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation between Austria and Japan Ngày áo tu hảo thông thương hàng hải điều ước 1868[26] Austria-Hungary Japan
Spanish-Japanese Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation Ngày tây tu hảo thông thương hàng hải điều ước 1868[27] Spain
Retrocession following theTriple Intervention
Convention of retrocession of the Liaodong Peninsula[ja] 		Liêu Đông còn phó điều ước 1895[28] France
Russia
Germany

Imposed on Korea

[edit]
Treaty Year Imposer Imposed on
English name Korean name
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876
(Treaty of Ganghwa) 		강화도 조약 ( giang hoa đảo điều ước ) 1876[29] Japan Joseon dynasty
United States–Korea Treaty of 1882 조미수호통상조약 ( triều mỹ tu hảo thông thương điều ước ) 1882[30] United States
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1882
(Treaty of Chemulpo) 		제물포 조약 ( tế vật phổ điều ước ) 1882 Japan
China–Korea Treaty of 1882
(Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules) 		조청상민수륙무역장정 ( triều thanh thương dân thuỷ bộ mậu dịch chương trình ) 1882[31] Qing dynasty
Germany–Korea Treaty of 1883 조독수호통상조약 ( triều độc tu hảo thông thương điều ước ) 1883[32] Germany
United Kingdom–Korea Treaty of 1883 조영수호통상조약 ( triều anh tu hảo thông thương điều ước ) 1883[33] United Kingdom
Russia–Korea Treaty of 1884 조로수호통상조약 ( sương mai tu hảo thông thương điều ước ) 1884[34] Russia
Italy–Korea Treaty of 1884 조이수호통상조약 ( triều y tu hảo thông thương điều ước ) 1884[35] Italy
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1885
(Treaty of Hanseong) 		한성조약 ( Seoul điều ước ) 1885[36] Japan
France–Korea Treaty of 1886 조불수호통상조약 ( triều phật tu hảo thông thương điều ước ) 1886[37] France
Austria–Korea Treaty of 1892 조오수호통상조약 ( triều áo tu hảo thông thương điều ước ) 1892[38] Austria-Hungary
Belgium–Korea Treaty of 1901 조벨수호통상조약 ( triều bạch tu hảo thông thương điều ước ) 1901[39] Belgium Korean Empire
Denmark–Korea Treaty of 1902 조덴수호통상조약 ( triều đinh tu hảo thông thương điều ước ) 1902[40] Denmark
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1904 한일의정서 ( Hàn Nhật nghị định thư ) 1904[41] Japan[42]
Japan–Korea Agreement of August 1904 제1차 한일협약 ( lần đầu tiên Hàn Nhật hiệp ước ) 1904[43] Japan[44]
Japan–Korea Agreement of April 1905 1905[45] Japan[46]
Japan–Korea Agreement of August 1905 1905[47] Japan[48]
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905
 제2차 한일협약 ( lần thứ hai Hàn Nhật hiệp ước )
(을사조약 ( Ất tị điều ước )) 		1905[49] Japan[50]
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 제3차 한일협약 ( lần thứ ba Hàn Nhật hiệp ước )
(정미조약 ( Đinh Mùi điều ước )) 		1907[51] Japan
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 한일병합조약 ( Hàn Nhật tính hợp điều ước ) 1910[52] Japan

Modern rhetorical usage

[edit]

In 2018,Malaysianprime ministerMahathir Mohamadcriticized the terms of the bilateral infrastructure projects under the ChineseBelt and Road Initiativein Malaysia and urged the Chinese negotiators to reassess them through invoking the historical memory of China's unequal treaties.[53][54]Stating that "they know that when they lend big sums of money to a poor country, in the end they may have to take the project for themselves". He appealed by stating that "China knows very well that it had to deal with unequal treaties in the past imposed upon China by Western powers. So China should be sympathetic toward us. They know we cannot afford this."[55]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^"Unequal Treaties with China".Encyclopédie d’histoire numérique de l’Europe.RetrievedMay 22,2022.
  2. ^Fravel, M. Taylor (October 1, 2005). "Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes".International Security.30(2): 46–83.doi:10.1162/016228805775124534.ISSN0162-2889.S2CID56347789.
  3. ^abWang, Dong. (2005).China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History.Lanham, Maryland: Le xing ton Books. pp. 1–2.ISBN9780739112083.
  4. ^Crean, Jeffrey (2024).The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History.New Approaches to International History series. London, UK:Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN978-1-350-23394-2.
  5. ^abcdDong Wang,China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History(Lanham, Md.: Le xing ton Books, 2005).
  6. ^Hsu, Immanuel C. Y. (1970).The Rise of Modern China.New York: Oxford University Press. p. 239.ISBN0195012402.
  7. ^abAkira Iriye,After Imperialism: The Search for a New Order in the Far East, 1921–1931(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965; Reprinted: Chicago: Imprint Publications, 1990),passim.
  8. ^"CHINA: Nationalist Notes".TIME.June 25, 1928. Archived fromthe originalon November 21, 2010.RetrievedApril 11,2011.
  9. ^abAndreas Steen:Deutsch-chinesische Beziehungen 1911-1927: Vom Kolonialismus zur „Gleichberechtigung “. Eine Quellensammlung.Berlin, Akademie-Verlag 2006, S. 221.
  10. ^Dreyer, June Teufel (2015).China's Political System.Routledge. p. 60.ISBN978-1-317-34964-8
  11. ^"May Fourth Movement".Encyclopædia Britannica.
  12. ^"FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: DIPLOMATIC PAPERS, 1943, CHINA".RetrievedJuly 7,2024.
  13. ^Hall, John Whitney; Hall, John Whitney (1991).Japan: from prehistory to modern times.Michigan classics in Japanese studies. Ann Arbor, Mich: Center for Japanese Studies, the Univ. of Michigan.ISBN978-0-939512-54-6.
  14. ^Miyauchi, D. Y. (May 1970)."Yokoi Shōnan's Response to the Foreign Intervention in Late Tokugawa Japan, 1853–1862".Modern Asian Studies.4(3): 269–290.doi:10.1017/s0026749x00011938.ISSN0026-749X.S2CID145055046.
  15. ^Michael R. Auslin(2006).Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy.Harvard University Press. pp. 17, 44.ISBN9780674020313.
  16. ^Totman, Conrad (1966). "Political Succession in The Tokugawa Bakufu: Abe Masahiro's Rise to Power, 1843–1845".Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies.26:102–124.doi:10.2307/2718461.JSTOR2718461.
  17. ^Preston, Peter Wallace. [1998] (1998). Blackwell Publishing. Pacific Asia in the Global System: An Introduction.ISBN0-631-20238-2
  18. ^Duus, Peter (1998).The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea.Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 54.ISBN0-52092-090-2.
  19. ^"Guide to Incheon's Chinatown".March 3, 2022.RetrievedSeptember 30,2023.
  20. ^Fuchs, Eckhardt (2017).A New Modern History of East Asia.V&R unipress GmbH. p. 97.ISBN978-3-7370-0708-5.
  21. ^I. H. Nish, "Japan Reverses the Unequal Treaties: The Anglo-Japanese Commercial Treaty of 1894,"Journal of Oriental Studies(1975) 13#2 pp 137-146.
  22. ^Auslin, Michael R. (2004)Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy,p. 17.,p. 17, atGoogle Books
  23. ^Auslin,p. 30.,p. 30, atGoogle Books
  24. ^Auslin,pp. 1, 7.,p. 1, atGoogle Books
  25. ^Auslin,p. 71.,p. 71, atGoogle Books
  26. ^Auslin, Michael R. (2004)Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy,p. 154.,p. 154, atGoogle Books
  27. ^Howland, Douglas (2016).International Law and Japanese Sovereignty: The Emerging Global Order in the 19th Century.Springer.ISBN9781137567772.
  28. ^Dreyer, June Teufel (2016).Middle Kingdom and Empire of the Rising Sun: Sino-Japanese Relations, Past and Present.Oxford University Press. p. 49.ISBN978-0-19-537566-4.
  29. ^Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D.C., 1921–1922. (1922).Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament,p. 33.,p. 33, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Treaty Between Japan and Korea, dated February 26, 1876."
  30. ^Korean Mission,p. 29.,p. 29, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Korea. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated May 22, 1882."
  31. ^Moon, Myungki."Korea-China Treaty System in the 1880s and the Opening of Seoul: Review of the Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules,"ArchivedOctober 5, 2011, at theWayback MachineJournal of Northeast Asian History,Vol. 5, No. 2 (Dec 2008), pp. 85–120.
  32. ^Korean Mission,p. 32.,p. 32, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Germany and Korea. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated November 23, 1883."
  33. ^Korean Mission,p. 32.,p. 32, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Great Britain and Korea... dated November 26, 1883."
  34. ^Korean Mission,p. 32.,p. 32, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Russia. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated June 25, 1884."
  35. ^Korean Mission,p. 32.,p. 32, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Italy. Treaty of Friendship and Commerce dated June 26, 1884."
  36. ^Yi, Kwang-gyu and Joseph P. Linskey. (2003).Korean Traditional Culture,p. 63.,p. 63, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "The so-calledHanseong Treatywas concluded between Korea and Japan. Korea paid compensation for Japanese losses. Japan and China worked out the Tien-Tsin Treaty, which ensured that both Japanese and Chinese troops withdraw from Korea."
  37. ^Korean Mission,p. 32.,p. 32, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and France. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated June 4, 1886."
  38. ^Korean Mission,p. 32.,p. 32, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Austria. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated July 23, 1892."
  39. ^Korean Mission,p. 32.,p. 32, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Belgium. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated March 23, 1901."
  40. ^Korean Mission,p. 32.,p. 32, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Denmark. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated July 15, 1902."
  41. ^Korean Mission,p. 34.,p. 34, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Treaty of Alliance Between Japan and Korea, dated February 23, 1904."
  42. ^Note that the Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament in Washington, D.C., 1921–1922 identified this as "Treaty of Alliance Between Japan and Korea, dated February 23, 1904"
  43. ^Korean Mission,p. 35.,p. 35, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 22, 1904."
  44. ^Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated August 22, 1904"
  45. ^Korean Mission,p. 35.,p. 35, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated April 1, 1905."
  46. ^Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated April 1, 1905"
  47. ^Korean Mission,p. 35.,p. 35, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 13, 1905."
  48. ^Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated August 13, 1905"
  49. ^Korean Mission,p. 35.,p. 35, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated November 17, 1905."
  50. ^Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated November 17, 1905"
  51. ^Korean Mission,p. 35.,p. 35, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated July 24, 1907."
  52. ^Korean Mission,p. 36.,p. 36, atGoogle Books;excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 20, 1910."
  53. ^Bland, Ben (June 24, 2018)."Malaysian backlash tests China's Belt and Road ambitions".Financial Times.RetrievedMarch 22,2022.
  54. ^"Analysis | New Malaysian government steps back from spending, Chinese projects".Washington Post.ISSN0190-8286.RetrievedMarch 22,2022.
  55. ^Beech, Hannah (August 20, 2018)."'We Cannot Afford This': Malaysia Pushes Back Against China's Vision ".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedMarch 22,2022.

Bibliography

[edit]
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