United Kingdom in the Napoleonic Wars

Between 1793 and 1815, under the rule ofKing George III,theKingdom of Great Britain(later theUnited Kingdom) was the most constant of France's enemies. Through itscommand of the sea,financial subsidies to allies on the European mainland, and active military intervention in thePeninsular War,Britain played a significant role in Napoleon's downfall.

Overview

With the execution ofKing Louis XVIin 1793, theFrench Revolutionbecame a contest of ideologies between the conservative, royalistKingdom of Great Britainand its allies and radical Republican France.Napoleon,who came to power in 1799, threatened invasion of Great Britain itself, and with it, a fate similar to the countries of continental Europe that his armies had overrun. Therefore, the British invested all the money and energy it could raise into theNapoleonic Wars.French ports were blockaded by theRoyal Navy.

After a relatively quiet pause from 1801-1803, war resumed in Europe when the British declared war on France and ended the uneasy peace maintained by theTreaty of Amiens.Napoleon's plans to invade Britain failed due to the inferiority of his navy, and in 1805,Lord Nelson's fleet decisively defeated the French and Spanish at theBattle of Trafalgar,which was the last significant naval action of the Napoleonic Wars.

Battle of Trafalgar

The series of naval and colonial conflicts, including a large number of minor naval actions, resembled those of theFrench Revolutionary Warsand the preceding centuries of European warfare. Conflicts in the Caribbean, and in particular the seizure of colonial bases and islands throughout the wars, could potentially have some effect upon the European conflict. The Napoleonic conflict had reached the point at which subsequent historians could talk of a "world war".Only theSeven Years' Waroffered a precedent for widespread conflict on such a scale.

Napoleon also attempted economic warfare against Britain, especially in theBerlin Decreeof 1806. It forbade the import of British goods into European countries allied with or dependent upon France, and installed theContinental Systemin Europe. All connections were to be cut, even the mail. British merchants smuggled in many goods and the Continental System was not a powerful weapon of economic war.There was some damage to Britain, especially in 1808 and 1811, but its control of the oceans helped ameliorate the damage. Even more damage was done to the economies of France and its allies, which lost a useful trading partner.Angry governments gained an incentive to ignore the Continental System, which led to the weakening of Napoleon's coalition.

TheBritish armyremained a minimal threat to France; the British standing army of just 220,000 at the height of the Napoleonic Wars hardly compared to France's army of a million men—in addition to the armies of numerous allies and several hundred thousandnational guardsmenthat Napoleon could draft into the military if necessary. Although the Royal Navy effectively disrupted France's extra-continental trade—both by seizing and threatening French shipping and by seizing French colonial possessions—it could do nothing about France's trade with the major continental economies and posed little threat to French territory in Europe. In addition, France's population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of Britain.

Many in the French government believed that isolating Britain from the Continent would end its economic influence over Europe and isolate it. Though the French designed the Continental System to achieve this, it never succeeded in its objective. Britain possessed the greatest industrial capacity in Europe, and its mastery of the seas allowed it to build up considerable economic strength through trade to its possessions from its rapidly expanding new empire. Britain's command of the sea meant that France could never enjoy the peace necessary to consolidate its control over Europe, and it could threaten neither the home islands nor the main British colonies.

Battle of Waterloo

Sideshows like theGunboat Waragainst Denmark, theWalcheren Campaignagainst the Netherlands and theWar of 1812against the United States could not hurt Napoleon, but theSpanish uprising of 1808at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent. TheDuke of Wellingtonand his army of British, Spaniards and Portuguese gradually pushed the French out of Spain and in early 1814, as Napoleon was being driven back in the east by the Prussians, Austrians, and Russians, Wellington invaded southern France. After Napoleon's surrender and exile to the island ofElba,peace appeared to have returned, but when he escaped back into France in 1815, the British and their allies had to fight him again. The armies of Wellington and Von Blucher defeated Napoleon once and for all at theBattle of Waterloo.

Civilian support network

Further information:British Army during the Napoleonic Wars

Britain mobilized a vast civilian support network to support its soldiers. Historian Jenny Uglow (2015) explores a multitude of connections between the Army and its support network, as summarized by a review of her book by Christine Haynes:

a whole host of other civilian, actors, including: army contractors, who provided massive quantities of tents, knapsacks, canteens, uniforms, shoes, muskets, gunpowder, ships, maps, fortifications, meat, and biscuit; bankers and speculators, who funded the supplies as well as subsidies to Britain's allies...revenue agents, who collected the wide variety of taxes imposed to finance the wars; farmers, whose fortunes rose and fell not just with the weather but with the war; elites, who amidst war maintained many of the same old routines and amusements; workers, when the context of war found opportunities for new jobs and higher wages but also grievances that led to strikes and riots; and the poor, who suffered immensely through much of this....[And women who] participated in the war not just as relations of combatants but as sutlers, prostitutes, laundresses, spinners, bandage-makers, and drawing-room news-followers.

Financing the war

TheBritish Empireat the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815

A key element in British success was its ability to mobilize the nation's industrial and financial resources and apply them to defeating France. With a population of 16 million Britain was barely half the size of France with 30 million. In terms of soldiers the French numerical advantage was offset byBritish subsidiesthat paid for a large proportion of the Austrian and Russian soldiers, peaking at about 450,000 in 1813.Most important, the British national output remained strong and the well-organized business sector channeled products into what the military needed. The system of smuggling finished products into the continent undermined French efforts to ruin the British economy by cutting off markets. The British budget in 1814 reached £66 million, including £10 million for the Navy, £40 million for the Army, £10 million for the Allies, and £38 million as interest on the national debt. Thenational debtsoared to £679 million, more than double theGDP.It was willingly supported by hundreds of thousands of investors and tax payers, despite the higher taxes on land and a newincome tax.The whole cost of the war came to £831 million. By contrast the French financial system was inadequate and Napoleon's forces had to rely in part on requisitions from conquered lands.

See also

• Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom
• War of the First Coalition
• War of the Second Coalition
• War of the Third Coalition
• War of the Fourth Coalition
• War of the Fifth Coalition
• War of the Sixth Coalition
• War of the Seventh Coalition

References

Works cited

• Halévy, Elie (1924).A History of the English People...: England in 1815.Harcourt, Brace.
• Knight, Roger (2013).Britain Against Napoleon: The Organization of Victory, 1793-1815.Penguin UK.ISBN978-0-14-197702-7.
• Schroeder, Paul W. (1994).The Transformation of European Politics, 1763-1848.Clarendon Press.ISBN978-0-19-820654-5.
• Uglow, Jenny (2015).In These Times: Living in Britain Through Napoleon's Wars, 1793-1815.Farrar, Straus and Giroux.ISBN978-1-4668-2822-3.
• Watson, John Steven (1960).The Reign of George III, 1760-1815.Clarendon Press.ISBN978-0-19-821713-8.

Further reading

• Andress, David.The Savage Storm: Britain on the Brink in the Age of Napoleon(2013)
• Bamford, Andrew.Sickness, Suffering, and the Sword: The British Regiment on Campaign, 1808–1815(2013).excerpt
• Bates, Stephen.Year of Waterloo: Britain in 1815(2015).
• Black, Jeremy. "British Strategy and the Struggle with France 1793–1815."Journal of Strategic Studies31#4 (2008): 553–569.
• Bryant, Arthur.Years of Endurance 1793–1802(1942)online;andYears of Victory, 1802–1812(1944)onlinewell-written surveys of the British story
• Bryant, Arthur.Years of Endurance 1793–1802(1942), well-written survey of the British story
• Christie, Ian R.Wars and Revolutions Britain, 1760–1815(1982)
• Cookson, J. E.The British Armed Nation 1793–1815(1997)doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198206583.001.0001
• Coss, Edward J.All for the King's Shilling: The British Soldier Under Wellington, 1808-1814(University of Oklahoma Press, 2012).
• Das, Amita; Das, Aditya.Defending British India Against Napoleon: The Foreign Policy of Governor-General Lord Minto, 1807–13( Rochester: Boydell Press, 2016)ISBN978-1-78327-129-0.online review
• Davey, James.In Nelson's Wake: The Navy and the Napoleonic Wars(2016).
• Divall, Carole (2013).Napoleonic Lives: Researching the British Soldiers of the Napoleonic Wars.Pen & Sword Family History. p. 188.ISBN978-1848845749.
• Ehrman, John.The Younger Pitt: The Consuming Struggle (Volume 3)(1996)
• Emsley, Clive.Britain and the French Revolution(Routledge, 2014).
• Esdaile, Charles J. "The British Army in the Napoleonic Wars: Approaches Old and New."English Historical Review130#542 (2015): 123–137.
• Feldbæk, Ole."The Anglo-Russian Rapprochement of 1801: A prelude to the peace of Amiens."Scandinavian Journal of History3.1-4 (1978): 205-227.
• Glover, Richard.Peninsular Preparation: The Reform of the British Army 1795–1809(1963)excerpt and text search
• Haythornthwaite, Philip J.Wellington's Military Machine, 1792–1815(1989)
• Haythornthwaite, Philip (2012).Redcoats: The British Soldiers of the Napoleonic Wars.Pen & Sword Military. p. 200.ISBN978-1844159581.
• Kennedy, Catriona (2013).Narratives of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: Military and Civilian Experience in Britain and Ireland.Palgrave Macmillan. p. 272.ISBN978-0230275430.
• Lavery, Brian.Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men, and Organization, 1793–1815(2nd ed. 2012)
• Linch, Kevin, and Matthew McCormack. "Wellington's Men: The British Soldier of the Napoleonic Wars"History Compass(2015) 13#6 pp. 288–296.
• Muir, Rory.Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon: 1807–1815(1996)
• Muir, Rory.Wellington: The Path to Victory 1769–1814(2013) vol 1 of two-volume scholarly biographyexcerpt and text search
• Nester, William R.Titan: The Art of British Power in the Age of Revolution and Napoleon(2016)
• Robson, Martin (2014).A History of the Royal Navy: The Napoleonic Wars.I B Taurus. p. 256.ISBN978-1780765440.
• Ross, Steven T.European Diplomatic History, 1789–1815: France Against Europe(1969)
• Willis, Sam.In the Hour of Victory: The Royal Navy at War in the Age of Nelson(2013)excerpt and text search