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United States Exploring Expedition

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TheUSSVincennesatDisappointment Bayin early 1840

TheUnited States Exploring Expeditionof 1838–1842 was an exploring and surveying expedition of thePacific Oceanand surrounding lands conducted by the United States. The original appointed commanding officer wasCommodoreThomas ap Catesby Jones.Funding for the original expedition was requested by PresidentJohn Quincy Adamsin 1828; however, Congress would not implement funding until eight years later. In May 1836, the oceanic exploration voyage was finally authorized byCongressand created by PresidentAndrew Jackson.

The expedition is sometimes called theU.S. Ex. Ex.for short, or theWilkes Expeditionin honor of its next appointed commanding officer,United States NavyLieutenantCharles Wilkes.The expedition was of major importance to the growth of science in the United States, in particular the then-young field ofoceanography.During the event, armed conflict between Pacific islanders and the expedition was common and dozens of natives were killed in action, as well as a few Americans.

Preparations

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Through thelobbying effortsofJeremiah N. Reynolds,[a]theUnited States House of Representativespassed a resolution on May 21, 1828, requesting PresidentJohn Quincy Adamsto send a ship to explore the Pacific. Adams was keen on the resolution and ordered hisSecretary of the Navyto ready a ship, thePeacock.The House voted anappropriationin December but the bill stalled in theUS Senatein February 1829. Then, under PresidentAndrew Jackson,Congress passed legislation in 1836 approving the exploration mission. Again, the effort stalled under Secretary of the NavyMahlon Dickersonuntil PresidentMartin Van Burenassumed office and pushed the effort forward.[2][3]

Originally, the expedition was under the commandCommodore Jones,but he resigned in November 1837, frustrated with all of the procrastination.Secretary of WarJoel Roberts Poinsett,in April 1838, then assigned command to Wilkes, after more senior officers refused the command. Wilkes had a reputation forhydrography,geodesy,andmagnetism.Additionally, Wilkes had received mathematics training fromNathaniel Bowditch,triangulationmethods fromFerdinand Hassler,andgeomagnetismfromJames Renwick.[4]

Personnel includednaturalists,botanists,amineralogist,ataxidermist,and aphilologist.They were carried aboard thesloops-of-warUSSVincennes(780 tons), andUSSPeacock(650 tons), thebrigUSSPorpoise(230 tons), thefull-rigged shipRelief,which served as astore-ship,and twoschooners,Sea Gull(110 tons) andUSSFlying Fish(96 tons), which served astenders.[5]

On August 18, 1838, the vessels left the naval port ofHampton Roads,Virginia.[6]The fleet then headed toMadeira,taking advantage of the prevailing winds.[7]

Ships and personnel

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The expedition consisted of nearly 350 men, many of whom were not assigned to any specific vessel. Others served on more than one vessel.[8]

Ships

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Command

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Scientific corps

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History

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Expedition

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First part

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First Part of Voyage Route: 1.Hampton Roads– 2.Madeira– 3.Rio de Janeiro– 4.Tierra del Fuego– 5.Valparaíso– 6.Callao– 7.Tahiti– 8.Samoa– 9.Sydney– 10.Antarctica– 11.Sandwich Islands (via Fiji)
Andes near Alparmarca, Peru: Sketched from an Elevation of 16,000 Feet,an illustration byAlfred Agate

Wilkes was to search in the Atlantic for variousvigiasor shoals, such as those reported byJohn Purdy,but failed to corroborate those claims for the locations given.[12]The squadron arrived in theMadeira Islandson September 16, 1838, andPorto Prayaon October 6.[13]ThePeacockarrived at Rio de Janeiro on November 21, and theVincenneswith brigs and schooners on November 24. However, theReliefdid not arrive until the November 27, setting a record for slowness, 100 days. While there, they used Enxados Island inGuanabara Bayfor an observatory and naval yard for repair and refitting.[14]

The Squadron did not leave Rio de Janeiro until January 6, 1839, arriving at the mouth of theRío Negroon January 25. On February 19, the squadron joined theRelief,Flying Fish,andSea Gullin Orange Harbor,Hoste Island,after passing throughLe Maire Strait.While there, the expedition came in contact with theFuegians.Wilkes sent an expedition south in an attempt to exceedCaptain Cook's farthest point south, 71°10'.

TheFlying Fishreached 70° on March 22, in the area about 100 miles (160 kilometers) north ofThurston Island,and what is now calledCape Flying Fish,and theWalker Mountains.The squadron joined thePeacockinValparaisoon May 10, but theSea Gullwas reported missing. On June 6, the squadron arrived atSan Lorenzo,offCallaofor repair and provisioning, while Wilkes dispatched theReliefhomewards on June 21.[15]Leaving South America on July 12, the expedition reachedReaoof theTuamotuGroup on August 13, andTahition September 11. They departed Tahiti on October 10.[16]

The expedition then visitedSamoaandNew South Wales,Australia. In December 1839, the expedition sailed from Sydney into theAntarctic Oceanand reported the discovery of theAntarctic continenton January 16, 1840, whenHenry EldandWilliam Reynoldsaboard thePeacocksightedEld PeakandReynolds Peakalong theGeorge V Coast.On the January 19, Reynolds spottedCape Hudson.On January 25, theVincennessighted the mountains behind theCook Ice Shelf,similar peaks atPiner Bayon January 30, and had covered 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) of coastline by February 12, from 140° 30' E. to 112° 16' 12 "E., when Wilkes acknowledged they had" discovered the Antarctic Continent. "NamedWilkes Land,it includesClaire Land,Banzare Land,Sabrina Land,Budd Land,andKnox Land.They charted 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) of Antarctic coastline[17]to a westward goal of 105° E., the edge ofQueen Mary Land,before departing to the north again on February 21.[18]

ThePorpoisecame across the French expedition ofJules Dumont d'Urvilleon January 30. However, due to a misunderstanding of each other's intentions, the Porpoise andAstrolabewere unable to communicate.[19]In February 1840, some of the expedition were present at the initial signing of theTreaty of Waitangiin New Zealand.[20]Some of the squadron then proceeded back to Sydney for repairs, while the rest visited theBay of Islands,before arriving inTongain April. AtNuku'alofathey met King Josiah (Aleamotu'a), and the George (Taufa'ahau), chief ofHa'apai,before proceeding onwards toFijion May 4. ThePorpoisesurveyed the Low Archipelago, while theVincennesandPeacockproceeded onwards toOvalau,where they signed a commercial treaty withTanoa VisawaqainLevuka.Edward Belcher'sHMSStarlingvisited Ovalau at the same time.[21]Hudson was able to capture Vendovi, after holding his brothers Cocanauto, Qaraniqio, and Tui Dreketi (Roko Tui Dreketior King ofRewa Province) hostage. Vendovi was deemed responsible for the attack against US sailors onOno Islandin 1836.[22]Vendovi was taken back to the US, but died shortly after his arrival in New York.[23]His skull was then added to the expedition collections and put on display in the Patent Office building in Washington, D.C.[22]

In July 1840, two members of the party, Lieutenant Underwood and Wilkes' nephew,MidshipmanWilkes Henry, were killed while bartering for food in westernFiji'sMaloloIsland. The cause of this event remains equivocal. Immediately prior to their deaths, the son of the local chief, who was being held as a hostage by the Americans, escaped by jumping out of the boat and running through the shallow water for shore. The Americans fired over his head. According to members of the expedition party on the boat, his escape was intended as a prearranged signal by the Fi gian s to attack. According to those on shore, the shooting actually precipitated the attack on the ground. The Americans landed sixty sailors to attack the hostile natives. Close to eighty Fi gian s were killed in the resulting American reprisal and two villages were burned to the ground.[24]

Return route

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Return route: 1.Puget Sound– 2.Columbia River– 3.San Francisco– 4.Polynesia– 5.Philippines– 6.Borneo– 7.Singapore– 8.Cape of Good Hope– 9.New York
Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition,an 1841 map of theOregon Territory
ThePeacockafter hitting the bar of theColumbia RivernearCape DisappointmentinWashington state

On August 9, after three months of surveying, the squadron met offMacuata.TheVincennesandPeacockproceeded onwards to the Sandwich Islands, with theFlying FishandPorpoiseto meet them inOahuby October. Along the way, Wilkes named thePhoenix Groupand made a stop at thePalmyra Atoll,making their group the first scientific expedition in history to visit Palmyra.[25]While in Hawaii, the officers were welcomed by GovernorKekūanaōʻa,KingKamehameha III,his aideWilliam Richards,and the journalistJames Jackson Jarves.The expedition surveyedKauai,Oahu,Hawaii,and the peak ofMauna Loa.ThePorpoisewas dispatched in November to survey several of theTuamotus,includingAratika,Kauehi,Raraka,andKatiu,and then proceeded toPenrhynbefore returning to Oahu on 24 March.

On April 5, 1841, the squadron departedHonolulu,thePorpoiseandVincennesfor the Pacific Northwest, thePeacockandFlying Fishto resurvey Samoa, before rejoining the squadron. Along the way, thePeacockandFlying FishsurveyedJarvis Island,Enderbury Island,theTokelauIslands, andFakaofo.ThePeacockfollowed this with surveys of theTuvaluislands ofNukufetau,Vaitupu,andNanumangain March. In April, thePeacocksurveyed theGilbert IslandsofTabiteuea,Nonouti,Aranuka,Maiana,Abemama,Kuria,Tarawa,Marakei,Butaritari,andMakin,before returning to Oahu on June 13. ThePeacockandFlying Fishthen left for theColumbia Riveron June 21.[26]

In April 1841, USSPeacock,under LieutenantWilliam L. Hudson,and USSFlying Fish,surveyedDrummond's Island,which was named for an American of the expedition. Lieutenant Hudson heard from a member of his crew that a ship had wrecked off the island and her crew massacred by theGilbertese.A woman and her child were said to be the only survivors, so Hudson decided to land a small force of marines and sailors, underWilliam M. Walker,to search the island. Initially, the natives were peaceful and the Americans were able to explore the island, without results. It was when the party was returning to their ship that Hudson noticed a member of his crew was missing.

After making another search, the man was not found and the natives began arming themselves. Lieutenant Walker returned his force to the ship, to converse with Hudson, who ordered Walker to return to shore and demand the return of the sailor. Walker then reboarded his boats with his landing party and headed to shore. Walker shouted his demand and the natives charged for him, forcing the boats to turn back to the ships. It was decided on the next day that the Americans wouldbombardthe hostiles and land again. While doing this, a force of around 700 Gilbertese warriors opposed the American assault, but were defeated after a long battle. No Americans were hurt, but twelve natives were killed and others were wounded, and two villages were also destroyed. A similar episode occurred two months before in February when thePeacockand theFlying Fishbrieflybombardedthe island ofUpolu,Samoa following the death of an American merchant sailor on the island.[27]

TheVincennesandPorpoisereachedCape Disappointmenton April 28, 1841, but then headed north to theStrait of Juan de Fuca,Port Discovery,andFort Nisqually,where they were welcomed byWilliam Henry McNeillandAlexander Caulfield Anderson.ThePorpoisesurveyed theAdmiralty Inlet,while boats from theVincennessurveyedHood Canal,and the coast northwards to theFraser River.Wilkes visitedFort Clatsop,John McLoughlinatFort Vancouver,andWilliam Cannonon theWillamette River,while he sent Lt. Johnson on an expedition toFort Okanogan,Fort ColvileandFort Nez Perces,where they metMarcus Whitman.[28]Like his predecessor,BritishexplorerGeorge Vancouver,Wilkes spent a good deal of time nearBainbridge Island.He noted the bird-like shape of the harbor atWinslowand named itEagle Harbor.Continuing his fascination with bird names, he named Bill Point and Wing Point.Port Madison, Washingtonand Points Monroe and Jefferson were named in honor of former United States presidents.Port Ludlowwas assigned to honor LieutenantAugustus Ludlow,who lost his life during theWar of 1812.

ThePeacockandFlying Fisharrived off Cape Disappointment on July 17. However, thePeacockwentagroundwhile attempting to enter theColumbia Riverand was soon lost, though with no loss of life. The crew was able to lower six boats and get everyone into Baker's Bay, along with their journals, surveys, the chronometers, and some of Agate's sketches. A one-eyed Indian named George then guided theFlying Fishinto the same bay.

There, the crew set up "Peacockville", assisted byJames Birnieof theHudson's Bay Company,and the American Methodist Mission at Point Adams. They also traded with the localClatsopandChinookanIndians over the next three weeks, while surveying the channel, before journeying toFort Georgeand a reunion with the rest of the squadron. This prompted Wilkes to send theVincennesto San Francisco Bay, while he continued to surveyGrays Harbor.[29]

From the area of modern-dayPortland,Wilkes sent an overland party of 39 southwards, led by Emmons, but guided byJoseph Meek.The group included Agate, Eld, Colvocoresses, Brackenridge, Rich, Peale, Stearns, and Dana, and proceeded along an inland route toFort Umpqua,Mount Shasta,theSacramento River,John Sutter'sNew Helvetia,and then onwards toSan Francisco Bay.They departed September 7, and arrived aboard theVincennesinSausalitoon October 23, having traveled along theSiskiyou Trail.[30]

Wilkes arrived with thePorpoiseandOregon,while theFlying Fishwas to rendezvous with the squadron in Honolulu.[31]The squadron surveyed San Francisco and its tributaries, and later produced a map of "Upper California".[32]The expedition then headed back out on October 31, arriving Honolulu on November 17, and departing on November 28.[33]They included a visit toWake Island,and returned by way of thePhilippines,Borneo,Singapore,Polynesia,and theCape of Good Hope,reaching New York on June 10, 1842.

The expedition was plagued by poor relationships between Wilkes and his subordinate officers throughout. Wilkes' self-proclaimed status as captain and commodore, accompanied by the flying of the requisite pennant and the wearing of a captain's uniform while being commissioned only as a Lieutenant, rankled heavily with other members of the expedition of similar real rank. His apparent mistreatment of many of his subordinates, and indulgence in punishments such as "flogging round the fleet"resulted in a major controversy on his return to America.[24][34]Wilkes wascourt-martialledon his return, but was acquitted on all charges except that of illegally punishing men in his squadron.

Significance

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Nukufetau man,an 1841 portrait byAlfred Agate

The Wilkes Expedition played a major role in the development of 19th-century science, particularly in the growth of the American scientific establishment. Many of the species and other items found by the expedition helped form the basis of collections at the newSmithsonian Institution.[35][36]

With the help of the expedition's scientists, derisively called "clam diggers "and"bug catchers"by navy crew members, 280 islands, mostly in the Pacific, were explored, and over 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) ofOregonwere mapped. Of no less importance, over 60,000 plant and bird specimens were collected. A staggering amount of data and specimens were collected during the expedition, including the seeds of 648 species, which were later traded, planted, and sent throughout the country. Dried specimens were sent to theNational Herbarium,now a part of the Smithsonian Institution. There were also 254 live plants, which mostly came from the home stretch of the journey, that were placed in a newly constructed greenhouse in 1850, which later became theUnited States Botanic Garden.

Alfred Thomas Agate,an engraver and illustrator, created an enduring record of traditional cultures such as the illustrations made of the dress and tattoo patterns of natives in theEllice Islandsin present-dayTuvalu.[37]

A collection of artifacts from the expedition also went to theNational Institute for the Promotion of Science,a precursor of theSmithsonian Institution.These joined artifacts from American history as the first artifacts in the Smithsonian collection.[38]

Published works

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For a short time Wilkes was attached to theOffice of Coast Survey,but from 1844 to 1861 he was chiefly engaged in preparing the expedition report. Twenty-eight volumes were planned, but only nineteen were published.[39]Of these, Wilkes wrote the multi-volumeNarrative of the United States exploring expedition, during 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842,Hydrography,andMeteorology.

TheNarrativeconcerns the customs, political and economic conditions of many places then little-known. Other contributions were three reports byJames Dwight DanaonZoophytes,Geology,andCrustacea.In addition to shorter articles and reports, Wilkes publishedWestern America, including California and Oregon,[40]andTheory of the Winds.TheSmithsonian Institutiondigitized the five volume narrative and the accompanying scientific volumes. The mismanagement that plagued the expedition prior to its departure continued after its completion. By June 1848, many of the specimens had been lost or damaged and many remained unidentified. In 1848Asa Graywas hired to work on the botanical specimens, and published the first volume of the report on botany in 1854,[41]but Wilkes was unable to secure the funding for the second volume.[42][43]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Reynoldshad previously lobbied for a U.S. expedition to the north pole and an alleged entrance to thehollow Earth,a petition which received 25 Congressional votes in favor.[1]

References

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  1. ^Fjågesund, Peter (2014). "The Closing Circle: 1880–1920".The Dream of the North: A Cultural History to 1920.Brill. pp. 331–412.JSTOR10.1163/j.ctv2gjwzhs.9.
  2. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 13–17.
  3. ^Dupree 1988,pp. 59–65.
  4. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 19, 35, 56–61.
  5. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 43, 63–68, 73–76.
  6. ^"United States Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842".sil.si.edu.RetrievedApril 6,2023.
  7. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 71–76.
  8. ^"The Crew and Vessels of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842".Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution Libraries.2004.RetrievedOctober 12,2018.
  9. ^Wilkes 1845,p.xxxvi,Volume 1.
  10. ^Wilkes 1845a,p.xxx,Volume 1.
  11. ^Philbrick 2004.
  12. ^Wilkes, Charles (1861).United States Exploring Expedition Vol. XXIII Hydrography.Philadelphia: U.S. Congress. pp. 41–46.
  13. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 86–87.
  14. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 88–89.
  15. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 91–96, 103–111.
  16. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 114–116, 123–131.
  17. ^Philbrick 2003,p.xix.
  18. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 132, 142–149, 155–159, 171–175.
  19. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 176–177.
  20. ^Wilkes 1845,p. 376.
  21. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 180–195.
  22. ^abAdler 2014.
  23. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 199–201.
  24. ^abPhilbrick 2003.
  25. ^Wilkes, Charles (1942)."Excerpt from United States Exploring Expedition, Vol XXIII".Palmyra Atoll Digital Archive.
  26. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 212, 217, 219–221, 224–237, 240, 245–246.
  27. ^Ellsworth 1934,pp. 172–174.
  28. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 253–256.
  29. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 247–253, 259.
  30. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 259–265.
  31. ^Stanton 1975,p. 267.
  32. ^"Map of" Upper California "".RetrievedFebruary 18,2018.
  33. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 269–272.
  34. ^Stanton 1975,pp. 219–220.
  35. ^Adler 2010.
  36. ^Adler, Antony. "From the Pacific to the Patent Office: The US Exploring Expedition and the origins of America's first national museum."Journal of the History of Collections.V. 23 (May): 49–74.
  37. ^Wilkes 1844,pp. 35–75, Volume 5, Chapter 2, 'Ellice's and Kingsmill's Group'.
  38. ^"Planning a National Museum".Smithsonian Institution Archives. Archived fromthe originalon August 3, 2009.RetrievedJanuary 2,2010.
  39. ^"The Publications of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1844–1874, Smithsonian Institution Libraries Digital Collection"(PDF).RetrievedFebruary 18,2018.
  40. ^Wilkes, C. (1849).Western America, including California and Oregon.Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard.ISBN9781297717482.
  41. ^Gray 1854.
  42. ^Harvard 2009.
  43. ^Dupree 1988,pp. 185–195.

Bibliography

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