Stress (linguistics)
| Primary stress | |
|---|---|
| ˈ◌ | |
| IPA Number | 501 |
| Encoding | |
| Entity(decimal) | ˈ |
| Unicode(hex) | U+02C8 |
| Secondary stress | |
|---|---|
| ˌ◌ | |
| IPA Number | 502 |
| Encoding | |
| Entity(decimal) | ˌ |
| Unicode(hex) | U+02CC |
Inlinguistics,and particularlyphonology,stressoraccentis the relative emphasis or prominence given to a certainsyllablein awordor to a certain word in a phrase orsentence.That emphasis is typically caused by such properties as increasedloudnessandvowel length,full articulation of thevowel,and changes intone.[1][2]The termsstressandaccentare often used synonymously in that context but are sometimes distinguished. For example, when emphasis is produced through pitch alone, it is calledpitch accent,and when produced through length alone, it is calledquantitative accent.[3]When caused by a combination of various intensified properties, it is calledstress accentordynamic accent;English uses what is calledvariable stress accent.
Since stress can be realised through a wide range ofphoneticproperties, such as loudness, vowel length, and pitch (which are also used for other linguistic functions), it is difficult to define stress solely phonetically.
The stress placed on syllables within words is calledword stress.Some languages havefixed stress,meaning that the stress on virtually any multisyllable word falls on a particular syllable, such as thepenultimate(e.g.Polish) or the first (e.g.Finnish). Other languages, likeEnglishandRussian,havelexical stress,where the position of stress in a word is not predictable in that way but lexically encoded. Sometimes more than one level of stress, such asprimary stressandsecondary stress,may be identified.
Stress is not necessarily a feature of all languages: some, such asFrenchandMandarin Chinese,are sometimes analyzed as lacking lexical stress entirely.
The stress placed on words within sentences is calledsentence stressorprosodic stress.That is one of the three components ofprosody,along withrhythmandintonation.It includesphrasal stress(the default emphasis of certain words withinphrasesorclauses), andcontrastive stress(used to highlight an item, a word or part of a word, that is given particular focus).
Phonetic realization
[edit]There are various ways in which stress manifests itself in the speech stream, and they depend to some extent on which language is being spoken. Stressed syllables are oftenlouderthan non-stressed syllables, and they may have a higher or lowerpitch.They may also sometimes be pronouncedlonger.There are sometimes differences inplaceormanner of articulation.In particular, vowels in unstressed syllables may have a more central (or "neutral") articulation, and those in stressed syllables have a more peripheral articulation. Stress may be realized to varying degrees on different words in a sentence; sometimes, the difference is minimal between the acoustic signals of stressed and those of unstressed syllables.
Those particular distinguishing features of stress, or types of prominence in which particular features are dominant, are sometimes referred to as particular types of accent:dynamic accentin the case of loudness,pitch accentin the case of pitch (although that term usually has more specialized meanings),quantitative accentin the case of length,[3]andqualitative accentin the case of differences in articulation. They can be compared to the various types ofaccents in music theory.In some contexts, the termstressorstress accentspecifically means dynamic accent (or as an antonym topitch accentin its various meanings).
A prominent syllable or word is said to beaccentedortonic;the latter term does not imply that it carriesphonemic tone.Other syllables or words are said to beunaccentedoratonic.Syllables are frequently said to be inpretonicorpost-tonicposition, and certain phonological rules apply specifically to such positions. For instance, inAmerican English,/t/ and /d/ areflappedin post-tonic position.
InMandarin Chinese,which is atonal language,stressed syllables have been found to have tones that are realized with a relatively large swing infundamental frequency,and unstressed syllables typically have smaller swings.[4](See alsoStress in Standard Chinese.)
Stressed syllables are often perceived as being more forceful than non-stressed syllables.
Word stress
[edit]Word stress, or sometimeslexical stress,is the stress placed on a given syllable in a word. The position of word stress in a word may depend on certain general rules applicable in the language ordialectin question, but in other languages, it must be learned for each word, as it is largely unpredictable, for examplein English.In some cases, classes of words in a language differ in their stress properties; for example,loanwordsinto a language withfixedstress may preserve stress placement from the source language, or thespecial pattern for Turkish placenames.
Non-phonemic stress
[edit]In some languages, the placement of stress can be determined by rules. It is thus not aphonemic propertyof the word, because it can always be predicted by applying the rules.
Languages in which the position of the stress can usually be predicted by a simple rule are said to havefixed stress.For example, inCzech,Finnish,Icelandic,HungarianandLatvian,the stress almost always comes on the first syllable of a word. InArmenianthe stress is on the last syllable of a word.[5]InQuechua,Esperanto,andPolish,the stress is almost always on thepenult(second-last syllable). InMacedonian,it is on theantepenult(third-last syllable).
Other languages have stress placed on different syllables but in a predictable way, as inClassical ArabicandLatin,where stress is conditioned by theweightof particular syllables. They are said to have a regular stress rule.
Statements about the position of stress are sometimes affected by the fact that when a word is spoken in isolation, prosodic factors (see below) come into play, which do not apply when the word is spoken normally within a sentence.Frenchwords are sometimes said to be stressed on the final syllable, but that can be attributed to theprosodic stress,which is placed on the last syllable (unless it is aschwain which case the stress is placed on the second-last syllable) of any string of words in that language. Thus, it is on the last syllable of a word analyzed in isolation. The situation issimilar in Mandarin Chinese.French, andGeorgian(and, according to some authors, Mandarin Chinese)[6]can be considered to have no real lexical stress.
Phonemic stress
[edit]With some exceptions above, languages such asGermanic languages,Romance languages,theEastandSouth Slavic languages,Lithuanian,Greek,as well as others, in which the position of stress in a word is not fully predictable, are said to havephonemic stress.Stress in these languages is usually truly lexical and must be memorized as part of the pronunciation of an individual word. In some languages, such as Spanish, Portuguese,Catalan,Lakotaand, to some extent, Italian, stress is even represented in writing using diacritical marks, for example in the Spanish wordscélebreandcelebré.Sometimes, stress is fixed for all forms of a particular word, or it can fall on different syllables in different inflections of the same word.
In such languages with phonemic stress, the position of stress can serve to distinguish otherwise identical words. For example, the English wordsinsight(/ˈɪnsaɪt/) andincite(/ɪnˈsaɪt/) are distinguished in pronunciation only by the fact that the stress falls on the first syllable in the former and on the second syllable in the latter. Examples from other languages includeGermanTenor([ˈteːnoːɐ̯]'gist of message'vs.[teˈnoːɐ̯]'tenor voice'); andItalianancora([ˈaŋkora]'anchor'vs.[aŋˈkoːra]'more, still, yet, again').
In many languages with lexical stress, it isconnected with alternations in vowels and/or consonants,which means that vowel quality differs by whether vowels are stressed or unstressed. There may also be limitations on certain phonemes in the language in which stress determines whether they are allowed to occur in a particular syllable or not. That is the case with most examplesin Englishand occurs systematicallyin Russian,such asза́мок([ˈzamək],'castle') vs.замо́к([zɐˈmok],'lock'); andin Portuguese,such as the tripletsábia([ˈsaβjɐ],'wise woman'),sabia([sɐˈβiɐ],'knew'),sabiá([sɐˈβja],'thrush').
Dialects of the same language may have different stress placement. For instance, the English wordlaboratoryis stressed on the second syllable inBritish English(labóratoryoften pronounced "labóratry", the secondobeing silent), but the first syllable inAmerican English,with a secondary stress on the "tor" syllable (láboratoryoften pronounced "lábratory" ). The Spanish wordvideois stressed on the first syllable in Spain (vídeo) but on the second syllable in the Americas (video). The Portuguese words forMadagascarand the continentOceaniaare stressed on the third syllable inEuropean Portuguese(MadagáscarandOceânia), but on the fourth syllable inBrazilian Portuguese(MadagascarandOceania).
Compounds
[edit]With very few exceptions, Englishcompound wordsare stressed on their first component. Even the exceptions, such asmankínd,[7]are instead often stressed on the first component by some people or in some kinds of English.[8]The same components as those of a compound word are sometimes used in a descriptive phrase with a different meaning and with stress on both words, but that descriptive phrase is then not usually considered a compound:bláck bírd(any bird that is black) andbláckbird(aspecific bird species) andpáper bág(a bag made of paper) andpáper bag(very rarely used for a bag for carrying newspapers but is often also used for a bag made of paper).[9]
Levels of stress
[edit]Some languages are described as having bothprimary stressandsecondary stress.A syllable with secondary stress is stressed relative to unstressed syllables but not as strongly as a syllable with primary stress. As with primary stress, the position of secondary stress may be more or less predictable depending on language. In English, it is not fully predictable, but the different secondary stress of the wordsorganizationandaccumulation(on the first and second syllable, respectively) is predictable due to the same stress of the verbsórganizeandaccúmulate.In some analyses, for example the one found in Chomsky and Halle'sThe Sound Pattern of English,English has been described as having four levels of stress: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary, but the treatments often disagree with one another.[citation needed]
Peter Ladefogedand other phoneticians have noted that it is possible to describe English with only one degree of stress, as long as prosody is recognized andunstressed syllablesare phonemically distinguished forvowel reduction.[10]They find that the multiple levels posited for English, whetherprimary–secondaryorprimary–secondary–tertiary,are notphoneticstress (let alonephonemic), and that the supposed secondary/tertiary stress is not characterized by the increase in respiratory activity associated with primary/secondary stress in English and other languages. (For further detail seeStress and vowel reduction in English.)
Prosodic stress
[edit]| Extra stress | |
|---|---|
| ˈˈ◌ |
Prosodicstress,orsentence stress,refers to stress patterns that apply at a higher level than the individual word – namely within aprosodic unit.It may involve a certain natural stress pattern characteristic of a given language, but may also involve the placing of emphasis on particular words because of their relative importance (contrastive stress).
An example of a natural prosodic stress pattern is that described forFrenchabove; stress is placed on the final syllable of a string of words (or if that is aschwa,the next-to-final syllable). A similar pattern is found in English (see§ Levels of stressabove): the traditional distinction between (lexical) primary and secondary stress is replaced partly by a prosodic rule stating that the final stressed syllable in a phrase is given additional stress. (A word spoken alone becomes such a phrase, hence such prosodic stress may appear to be lexical if the pronunciation of words is analyzed in a standalone context rather than within phrases.)
Another type of prosodic stress pattern isquantity sensitivity– in some languages additional stress tends to be placed on syllables that are longer (moraically heavy).
Prosodic stress is also often usedpragmaticallyto emphasize (focus attention on) particular words or the ideas associated with them. Doing this can change or clarify the meaning of a sentence; for example:
Ididn't take the test yesterday. (Somebody else did.)
Ididn'ttake the test yesterday. (I did not take it.)
I didn'ttakethe test yesterday. (I did something else with it.)
I didn't takethetest yesterday. (I took one of several,orI didn't take the specific test that would have been implied.)
I didn't take thetestyesterday. (I took something else.)
I didn't take the testyesterday.(I took it some other day.)
As in the examples above, stress is normally transcribed asitalicsin printed text or underlining in handwriting.
In English, stress is most dramatically realized on focused or accented words. For instance, consider the dialogue
"Is it brunch tomorrow?"
"No, it'sdinnertomorrow. "
In it, the stress-related acoustic differences between the syllables oftomorrowwould be small compared to the differences between the syllables ofdinner,the emphasized word. In these emphasized words, stressed syllables such asdinindinner are louder and longer.[11][12][13]They may also have a different fundamental frequency, or other properties.
The main stress within a sentence, often found on the last stressed word, is called thenuclear stress.[14]
Stress and vowel reduction
[edit]In many languages, such asRussianandEnglish,vowel reductionmay occur when a vowel changes from a stressed to an unstressed position. In English, unstressed vowels may reduce toschwa-like vowels, though the details vary with dialect (seestress and vowel reduction in English). The effect may be dependent on lexical stress (for example, the unstressed first syllable of the wordphotographercontains a schwa/fəˈtɒɡrəfər/,whereas the stressed first syllable ofphotographdoes not/ˈfoʊtəˌgræf-grɑːf/), or on prosodic stress (for example, the wordofis pronounced with a schwa when it is unstressed within a sentence, but not when it is stressed).
Many other languages, such asFinnishand the mainstream dialects ofSpanish,do not have unstressed vowel reduction; in these languages vowels in unstressed syllables have nearly the same quality as those in stressed syllables.
Stress and rhythm
[edit]Some languages, such asEnglish,are said to bestress-timed languages;that is, stressed syllables appear at a roughly constant rate and non-stressed syllables are shortened to accommodate that, which contrasts with languages that havesyllable timing(e.g.Spanish) ormoratiming(e.g.Japanese), whose syllables or moras are spoken at a roughly constant rate regardless of stress. For details, seeisochrony.
Historical effects
[edit]It is common for stressed and unstressed syllables to behave differently as a language evolves. For example, in theRomance languages,the original Latinshort vowels/e/and/o/have often becomediphthongswhen stressed. Since stress takes part inverbconjugation, that has produced verbs withvowel alternationin the Romance languages. For example, theSpanishverbvolver(to return, come back) has the formvolvíin the past tense butvuelvoin the present tense (seeSpanish irregular verbs).Italianshows the same phenomenon but with/o/alternating with/uo/instead. That behavior is not confined to verbs; note for example Spanishviento'wind'from Latinventum,or Italianfuoco'fire'from Latinfocum.There are also examples in French, though they are less systematic:viensfrom Latinveniowhere the first syllable was stressed, vsvenirfrom Latinvenirewhere the main stress was on the penultimate syllable.
Stress "deafness"
[edit]An operational definition of word stress may be provided by the stress "deafness" paradigm.[15][16]The idea is that if listeners perform poorly on reproducing the presentation order of series of stimuli that minimally differ in the position of phonetic prominence (e.g.[númi]/[numí]), the language does not have word stress. The task involves a reproduction of the order of stimuli as a sequence of key strokes, whereby key "1" is associated with one stress location (e.g.[númi]) and key "2" with the other (e.g.[numí]). A trial may be from two to six stimuli in length. Thus, the order[númi-númi-numí-númi]is to be reproduced as "1121". It was found that listeners whose native language was French performed significantly worse than Spanish listeners in reproducing the stress patterns by key strokes. The explanation is that Spanish has lexically contrastive stress, as evidenced by theminimal pairsliketopo('mole') andtopó('[he/she/it] met'), while in French, stress does not convey lexical information and there is no equivalent of stress minimal pairs as in Spanish.
An important case of stress "deafness" relates to Persian.[16]The language has generally been described as having contrastive word stress or accent as evidenced by numerous stem and stem-clitic minimal pairs such as/mɒhi/[mɒ.hí]('fish') and/mɒh-i/[mɒ́.hi]('some month'). The authors argue that the reason why Persian listeners are stress "deaf" is that their accent locations arise postlexically. Persian thus lacks stress in the strict sense.
Stress "deafness" has been studied for a number of languages, such as Polish[17]or French learners of Spanish.[18]
Spelling and notation for stress
[edit]Theorthographiesof some languages include devices for indicating the position of lexical stress. Some examples are listed below:
- InModern Greek,allpolysyllablesare written with anacute accent(´) over the vowel of the stressed syllable. (The acute accent is also used on somemonosyllablesin order to distinguishhomographs,as inη('the') andή('or'); here the stress of the two words is the same.)
- InSpanish orthography,stress may be written explicitly with a single acute accent on a vowel. Stressed antepenultimate syllables are always written with that accent mark, as inárabe.If the last syllable is stressed, the accent mark is used if the word ends in the lettersn,s,or a vowel, as inestá.If the penultimate syllable is stressed, the accent is used if the word ends in any other letter, as incárcel.That is, if a word is written without an accent mark, the stress is on the penult if the last letter is a vowel,n,ors,but on the final syllable if the word ends in any other letter. However, as in Greek, the acute accent is also used for some words to distinguish various syntactical uses (e.g.té'tea' vs.tea form of the pronountú'you';dónde'where' as a pronoun orwh-complement,donde'where' as an adverb).
- Catalan and Valencian orthographiesuse the acute andgrave accentsto mark both stress and vowel quality. An acute on⟨é ó⟩indicates that the vowel is stressed andclose-mid(/eo/), while grave on⟨è ò⟩indicates that the vowel is stressed andopen-mid(/ɛɔ/). Grave on⟨à⟩and acute on⟨í ú⟩simply indicate that the vowels are stressed. Thus, the acute is used on close or close-mid vowels, and the grave on open or open-mid vowels.[19]
- InFilipino orthography(which also applies to otherPhilippine languages), an acute accent is used to distinguish similar words with different meanings. The position of the stress may occur in first, middle or final syllable of a word. Stress that occurs in the first syllable serves as the default word and is usually left unwritten e.g.pito('whistle') which distinguishes frompitó('seven'). Diacritics in ModernTagalogand other Philippine languages are rarely used in writing, cases of which the diacritical marks are used can only be seen in formal and academic setting. Vowels with an acute accent are not included in theFilipino Alpha bet,possible combinations include: á,é,í,ó and ú.
- InPortuguese,stressis sometimes indicated explicitly with an acute accent (fori,u,and opena,e,o), or circumflex (for closea,e,o). The orthography has anextensive set of rulesthat describe the placement of diacritics, based on the position of the stressed syllable and the surrounding letters.
- InItalian,the grave accent is needed in words ending with an accented vowel, e.g.città,'city', and in some monosyllabic words that might otherwise be confused with other words, likelà('there') andla('the'). It is optional for it to be written on any vowel if there is a possibility of misunderstanding, such ascondomìni('condominiums') andcondòmini('joint owners').(In this particular case, a frequent one in which diacritics present themselves, the difference of accents is caused by the fall of the second "i" from Latin in Italian, typical of the genitive, in the first noun (con/domìnìi/, meaning'of the owner'); while the second was derived from the nominative (con/dòmini/, meaning simply'owners')). The acute accent may be used on⟨é⟩and⟨ó⟩to representclose-mid vowelswhen they are stressed. Since final⟨o⟩is hardly ever close-mid,⟨ó⟩is very rarely encountered in written Italian (e.g.metró'subway'). The two different accents may be used to differentiateminimal pairswithin Italian (for examplepèsca'peach' vs.pésca'fishing'), but in practice this is limited to didactic texts.
- Maltese orthographyindicates stress with grave accent.
Though not part of normal orthography, a number of devices exist that are used by linguists and others to indicate the position of stress (andsyllabificationin some cases) when it is desirable to do so. Some of these are listed here.
- Most commonly, thestress markis placed before the beginning of the stressed syllable, where a syllable is definable. However, it is occasionally placed immediately before the vowel.[20]In theInternational Phonetic Alphabet(IPA), primary stress is indicated by a high vertical line (primary stress mark:
ˈ) before the stressed element, secondary stress by a low vertical line (secondary stress mark:ˌ). For example,[sɪˌlæbəfɪˈkeɪʃən]or/sɪˌlæbəfɪˈkeɪʃən/.Extra stress can be indicated by doubling the symbol:ˈˈ◌. - Linguists frequently mark primary stress with an acute accent over the vowel, and secondary stress by a grave accent. Example:[sɪlæ̀bəfɪkéɪʃən]or/sɪlæ̀bəfɪkéɪʃən/.That has the advantage of not requiring a decision about syllable boundaries.
- In English dictionaries that show pronunciation byrespelling,stress is typically marked with aprime markplaced after the stressed syllable: /si-lab′-ə-fi-kay′-shən/.
- Inad hocpronunciation guides, stress is often indicated using a combination of bold text and capital letters. For example, si-lab-if-i-KAY-shun or si-LAB-if-i-KAY-shun
- InRussian,Belarusian,andUkrainiandictionaries, stress is indicated with marks calledznaki udareniya(знаки ударения,'stress marks'). Primary stress is indicated with anacute accent(´) on a syllable's vowel (example:вимовля́ння).[21][22]Secondary stressmay be unmarked or marked with a grave accent:о̀колозе́мный.If the acute accent sign is unavailable for technical reasons, stress can be marked by making the vowel capitalized or italic.[23]In general texts, stress marks are rare, typically used either when required for disambiguation ofhomographs(compareв больши́х количествах'in great quantities', andв бо́льших количествах'in greaterquantities'), or in rare words and names that are likely to be mispronounced. Materials for foreign learners may have stress marks throughout the text.[21]
- InDutch,ad hocindication of stress is usually marked by an acute accent on the vowel (or, in the case of adiphthongor double vowel, the first two vowels) of the stressed syllable. Compareachterúítgang('deterioration') andáchteruitgang('rear exit').
- InBiblical Hebrew,a complex system ofcantillationmarks is used to mark stress, as well as verse syntax and the melody according to which the verse is chanted in ceremonial Bible reading. InModern Hebrew,there is no standardized way to mark the stress. Most often, the cantillation markoleh(part ofoleh ve-yored), which looks like a left-pointing arrow above the consonant of the stressed syllable, for exampleב֫וקרbóqer('morning') as opposed toבוק֫רboqér('cowboy'). That mark is usually used in books by the Academy of the Hebrew Language and is available on the standard Hebrew keyboard at AltGr-6. In some books, other marks, such asmeteg,are used.[24]
See also
[edit]- Accent (poetry)
- Accent (music)
- Foot (prosody)
- Initial-stress-derived noun
- Pitch accent (intonation)
- Phonetic word
- Rhythm
- Syllable weight
References
[edit]- ^Fry, D.B. (1955). "Duration and intensity as physical correlates of linguistic stress".Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.27(4): 765–768.Bibcode:1955ASAJ...27..765F.doi:10.1121/1.1908022.
- ^Fry, D.B. (1958). "Experiments in the perception of stress".Language and Speech.1(2): 126–152.doi:10.1177/002383095800100207.S2CID141158933.
- ^abMonrad-Krohn, G. H. (1947). "The prosodic quality of speech and its disorders (a brief survey from a neurologist's point of view)".Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica.22(3–4): 255–269.doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1947.tb08246.x.S2CID146712090.
- ^Kochanski, Greg; Shih, Chilin; Jing, Hongyan (2003)."Quantitative measurement of prosodic strength in Mandarin".Speech Communication.41(4): 625–645.doi:10.1016/S0167-6393(03)00100-6.
- ^Mirakyan, Norayr (2016)."The Implications of Prosodic Differences Between English and Armenian"(PDF).Collection of Scientific Articles of YSU SSS.1.3(13). YSU Press: 91–96.
- ^Duanmu, San (2000).The Phonology of Standard Chinese.Oxford University Press. p. 134.
- ^mankindin the Collins English Dictionary
- ^"mankind".The American Heritage Dictionary.HarperCollins.Retrieved2023-04-04.
- ^"paper bag"in the Collins English Dictionary
- ^Ladefoged (1975etc.)A course in phonetics§ 5.4; (1980)Preliminaries to linguistic phoneticsp 83
- ^Beckman, Mary E. (1986).Stress and Non-Stress Accent.Dordrecht: Foris.ISBN90-6765-243-1.
- ^R. Silipo and S. Greenberg,Automatic Transcription of Prosodic Stress for Spontaneous English Discourse,Proceedings of the XIVth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS99), San Francisco, CA, August 1999, pages 2351–2354
- ^Kochanski, G.; Grabe, E.; Coleman, J.; Rosner, B. (2005)."Loudness predicts prominence: Fundamental frequency lends little".The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.118(2): 1038–1054.Bibcode:2005ASAJ..118.1038K.doi:10.1121/1.1923349.PMID16158659.S2CID405045.
- ^Roca, Iggy (1992).Thematic Structure: Its Role in Grammar.Walter de Gruyter. p. 80.
- ^Dupoux, Emmanuel; Peperkamp, Sharon; Sebastián-Gallés, Núria (2001). "A robust method to study stress" deafness "".The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.110(3): 1606–1618.Bibcode:2001ASAJ..110.1606D.doi:10.1121/1.1380437.PMID11572370.
- ^abRahmani, Hamed; Rietveld, Toni; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015-12-07)."Stress" Deafness "Reveals Absence of Lexical Marking of Stress or Tone in the Adult Grammar".PLOS ONE.10(12): e0143968.Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1043968R.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143968.ISSN1932-6203.PMC4671725.PMID26642328.
- ^Domahs, Ulrike; Knaus, Johannes; Orzechowska, Paula; Wiese, Richard (2012)."Stress 'deafness' in a language with fixed word stress: an ERP study on Polish".Frontiers in Psychology.3:439.doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00439.PMC3485581.PMID23125839.
- ^Dupoux, Emmanuel; Sebastián-Gallés, N; Navarrete, E; Peperkamp, Sharon (2008). "Persistent stress 'deafness': The case of French learners of Spanish".Cognition.106(2): 682–706.doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2007.04.001.hdl:11577/2714082.PMID17592731.S2CID2632741.
- ^Wheeler, Max W. (2005).The Phonology Of Catalan.Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 6.ISBN0-19-925814-7.
- ^Payne, Elinor M. (2005)."Phonetic variation in Italian consonant gemination".Journal of the International Phonetic Association.35(2): 153–181.doi:10.1017/S0025100305002240.S2CID144935892.
- ^abЛопатин, Владимир Владимирович, ed. (2009).§ 116. Знак ударения.Правила русской орфографии и пунктуации. Полный академический справочник(in Russian). Эксмо.ISBN978-5-699-18553-5.
- ^Somepre-revolutionarydictionaries, e.g. Dahl'sExplanatory Dictionary,marked stress with an apostrophe just after the vowel (example:гла'сная). See:Dahl, Vladimir Ivanovich(1903).Boduen de Kurtene, Ivan Aleksandrovich(ed.).Толко́вый слова́рь живо́го великору́сского языка́[Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language] (in Russian) (3rd ed.). Saint Petersburg: M.O. Wolf. p. 4.
- ^Каплунов, Денис (2015).Бизнес-копирайтинг: Как писать серьезные тексты для серьезных людей(in Russian). p. 389.ISBN978-5-000-57471-3.
- ^Aharoni, Amir (2020-12-02)."אז איך נציין את מקום הטעם".הזירה הלשונית – רוביק רוזנטל(in Hebrew).Retrieved2021-11-25.
External links
[edit]- "Feet and Metrical Stress",The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology
- "Word stress in English: Six Basic Rules",Linguapress
- Word Stress Rules: A Guide to Word and Sentence Stress Rules for English Learners and Teachers,based on affixation
