Yoga

For the use of yoga in exercise, seeYoga as exercise.For the use of yoga as therapy, seeYoga as therapy.For the ancient Indian philosophy, seeYoga (philosophy).For other uses, seeYoga (disambiguation).

Statue ofShivaperforming yoga in thelotus position

Yoga(/ˈjoʊɡə/;Sanskrit:योग,lit. 'yoke' or 'union'pronounced[joːɡɐ]) is a group ofphysical,mental, andspiritualpractices or disciplines which originated inancient Indiaand aim to control (yoke) andstill the mind,recognizinga detachedwitness-consciousnessuntouched by the mind (Chitta) and mundane suffering (Duḥkha). There is a wide variety of schools of yoga, practices, and goalsinHinduism,Buddhism,andJainism,and traditional and modern yoga is practiced worldwide.

Yoga-like practices were first mentioned in the ancientHindu textknown asRigveda.Yoga is referred to in a number of theUpanishads.The first known appearance of the word "yoga" with the same meaning as the modern term is in theKatha Upanishad,which was probably composed between the fifth and third centuries BCE.Yoga continued to develop as a systematic study and practice during the fifth and sixth centuries BCE in ancient India'sasceticandŚramaṇamovements.The most comprehensive text on yoga, theYoga Sutras of Patanjali,date to the early centuries of theCommon Era;Yoga philosophybecame known as one of the sixorthodox philosophical schools(Darśanas) of Hinduism in the second half of the first millennium CE.Hatha yogatexts began to emerge between the ninth and 11th centuries, originating intantra.

Two general theories exist on the origins of yoga. The linear model holds that yoga originated in the Vedic period, as reflected in theVedic textual corpus,and influenced Buddhism; according to author Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, this model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars. According to the synthesis model, yoga is a synthesis of non-Vedic and Vedic elements; this model is favoured in Western scholarship.

The term "yoga" in the Western world often denotes a modern form of Hatha yoga and aposture-based physical fitness, stress-relief and relaxation technique,consisting largely ofasanas;this differs from traditional yoga, which focuses onmeditationand release from worldly attachments.It was introduced bygurusfromIndiaafter the success ofSwami Vivekananda's adaptation of yoga without asanas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.Vivekananda introduced theYoga Sutrasto the West, and they became prominent after the 20th-century success of hatha yoga.

Etymology

A statue ofPatanjali,author of theYoga Sutras of Patanjali,meditating in thelotus position

TheSanskritnounयोगyogais derived from the rootyuj(युज्) "to attach, join, harness, yoke".Yogais acognateof theEnglishword "yoke".According toMikel Burley,the first use of the root of the word "yoga" is in hymn 5.81.1 of theRigveda,a dedication to the rising Sun-god, where it has been interpreted as "yoke" or "control".

Pāṇini(4th c. BCE) wrote that the termyogacan be derived from either of two roots:yujir yoga(to yoke) oryuj samādhau( "to concentrate" ).In the context of theYoga Sutras,the rootyuj samādhau(to concentrate) is considered the correct etymology by traditional commentators.

In accordance with Pāṇini,Vyasa(who wrote the first commentary on theYoga Sutras)says that yoga meanssamadhi(concentration).A person who practices yoga, or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment, is called ayogi;a female yogi may also be known as ayogini.

Definitions in classical texts

The term "yoga"has been defined in different ways in Indian philosophical and religious traditions.

Source Text	Approx. Date	Definition of Yoga
Vaisesika sutra	c. 4th century BCE	"Pleasure and suffering arise as a result of the drawing together of the sense organs, the mind and objects. When that does not happen because the mind is in the self, there is no pleasure or suffering for one who is embodied. That is yoga" (5.2.15–16)
Katha Upanishad	last centuries BCE	"When the five senses, along with the mind, remain still and the intellect is not active, that is known as the highest state. They consider yoga to be firm restraint of the senses. Then one becomes un-distracted for yoga is the arising and the passing away" (6.10–11)
Bhagavad Gita	c. 2nd century BCE	"Be equal minded in both success and failure. Such equanimity is called Yoga" (2.48) "Yoga is skill in action" (2.50) "Know that which is called yoga to be separation from contact with suffering" (6.23)
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali	c. first centuries CE	1.2.yogas chitta vritti nirodhah– "Yoga is the calming down the fluctuations/patterns of mind" 1.3. Then theSeeris established in his own essential and fundamental nature. 1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the modifications (of the mind).
Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra(Sravakabhumi),aMahayanaBuddhistYogacarawork	4th century CE	"Yoga is fourfold: faith, aspiration, perseverance and means" (2.152)
Kaundinya'sPancarthabhasyaon thePashupata-sutra	4th century CE	"In this system, yoga is the union of the self and the Lord" (I.I.43)
YogaśatakaaJainwork byHaribhadra Suri	6th century CE	"With conviction, the lords of Yogins have in our doctrine defined yoga as the concurrence (sambandhah) of the three [correct knowledge (sajjñana), correct doctrine (saddarsana) and correct conduct (saccaritra)] beginning with correct knowledge, since [thereby arises] conjunction with liberation....In common usage this [term] yoga also [denotes the Self's] contact with the causes of these [three], due to the common usage of the cause for the effect. "(2, 4).
Linga Purana	7th–10th century CE	"By the word 'yoga' is meant nirvana, the condition ofShiva."(I.8.5a)
Brahmasutra-bhasyaofAdi Shankara	c. 8th century CE	"It is said in the treatises on yoga: 'Yoga is the means of perceiving reality' (atha tattvadarsanabhyupāyo yogah) "(2.1.3)
Mālinīvijayottara Tantra,one of the primary authorities in non-dualKashmir Shaivism	6th–10th century CE	"Yoga is said to be the oneness of one entity with another." (4.4–8)
Mrgendratantravrtti,of theShaiva Siddhantascholar Narayanakantha	6th–10th century CE	"To have self-mastery is to be a Yogin. The term Yogin means" one who is necessarily "conjoined with" the manifestation of his nature...the Siva-state (sivatvam) "(yp 2a)
Śaradatilakaof Lakshmanadesikendra, aShaktaTantrawork	11th century CE	"Yogic experts state that yoga is the oneness of the individual Self (jiva) with the atman. Others understand it to be the ascertainment of Siva and the Self as non-different. The scholars of the Agamas say that it is a Knowledge which is of the nature of Siva's Power. Other scholars say it is the knowledge of the primordial Self." (25.1–3b)
Yogabija,aHatha yogawork	14th century CE	"The union of apana and prana, one's own rajas and semen, the sun and moon, the individual Self and the supreme Self, and in the same way the union of all dualities, is called yoga." (89)

Goals

The ultimate goals of yoga arestilling the mindandgaining insight,resting in detached awareness, and liberation (Moksha) fromsaṃsāraandduḥkha:a process (or discipline) leading to unity (Aikyam) with the divine (Brahman) or with one's self (Ātman).This goal varies by philosophical or theological system. In the classicalAstanga yoga system,the ultimate goal of yoga is to achievesamadhiand remain in that state aspure awareness.

According toKnut A. Jacobsen,yoga has five principal meanings:

1. A disciplined method for attaining a goal
2. Techniques of controlling the body and mind
3. A name of a school or system of philosophy (darśana)
4. With prefixes such as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-, traditions specialising in particular yoga techniques
5. The goal of yoga practice

David Gordon Whitewrites that yoga's core principles were more or less in place in the 5th century CE, and variations of the principles developed over time:

1. A meditative means of discovering dysfunctional perception and cognition, as well as overcoming it to release any suffering, find inner peace, and salvation. Illustration of this principle is found in Hindu texts such as theBhagavad GitaandYogasutras,in a number of Buddhist Mahāyāna works, as well as Jain texts.
2. The raising and expansion of consciousness from oneself to being coextensive with everyone and everything. These are discussed in sources such as in Hinduism Vedic literature and its epicMahābhārata,the Jain Praśamaratiprakarana, and Buddhist Nikaya texts.
3. A path to omniscience and enlightened consciousness enabling one to comprehend the impermanent (illusive, delusive) and permanent (true, transcendent) reality. Examples of this are found in HinduismNyayaandVaisesikaschool texts as well as Buddhism Mādhyamaka texts, but in different ways.
4. A technique for entering into other bodies, generating multiple bodies, and the attainment of other supernatural accomplishments. These are, states White, described inTantricliterature of Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as the Buddhist Sāmaññaphalasutta.James Mallinson,however, disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga's goal as meditation-driven means to liberation in Indian religions.

According to White, the last principle relates to legendary goals of yoga practice; it differs from yoga's practical goals in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the Common Era in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophical schools.

History

There is no consensus on yoga's chronology or origins other than its development in ancient India. There are two broad theories explaining the origins of yoga. The linear model holds that yoga has Vedic origins (as reflected in Vedic texts), and influenced Buddhism. This model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars.According to the synthesis model, yoga is a synthesis of indigenous, non-Vedic practices with Vedic elements. This model is favoured in Western scholarship.

Speculations about yoga began to emerge in the early Upanishads of the first half of the first millennium BCE, with expositions also appearing in Jain and Buddhist textsc. 500– c. 200 BCE.Between 200 BCE and 500 CE, traditions of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophy were taking shape; teachings were collected assutras,and a philosophical system ofPatanjaliyogasastrabegan to emerge.The Middle Ages saw the development of a number of yoga satellite traditions. It and other aspects of Indian philosophy came to the attention of the educated Western public during the mid-19th century.

Origins

Linear model

According to Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, Hindu researchers have favoured a linear theory which attempts "to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis";traditional Hinduism regards theVedasas the source of all spiritual knowledge.Edwin Bryant wrote that authors who supportIndigenous Aryanismalso tend to support the linear model.

Synthesis model

Heinrich Zimmer was an exponent of the synthesis model,arguing for non-Vediceastern states of India.According to Zimmer, yoga is part of a non-Vedic system which includes theSamkhyaschool ofHindu philosophy,JainismandBuddhism:"[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India [Bihar] – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga,Sankhya,and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems. "Richard Gombrichand Geoffrey Samuelbelieve that theśramaṇamovement originated in non-VedicGreater Magadha.

Thomas McEvilley favors a composite model in which a pre-Aryan yoga prototype existed in the pre-Vedic period and was refined during the Vedic period.According to Gavin D. Flood, the Upanishads differ fundamentally from the Vedic ritual tradition and indicate non-Vedic influences.However, the traditions may be connected:

[T]his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal.

The ascetic traditions of the eastern Ganges plain are thought to drew from a common body of practices and philosophies,with proto-samkhya concepts ofpurushaandprakritias a common denominator.

Indus Valley Civilisation

The twentieth-century scholarsKarel Werner,Thomas McEvilley,and Mircea Eliade believe that the central figure of thePashupati sealis in aMulabandhasanaposture,and the roots of yoga are in theIndus Valley civilisation.This is rejected by more recent scholarship; for example,Geoffrey Samuel,Andrea R. Jain, andWendy Donigerdescribe the identification as speculative; the meaning of the figure will remain unknown untilHarappan scriptis deciphered, and the roots of yoga cannot be linked to the IVC.

Earliest references (1000–500 BCE)

Further information:Vedic period

TheVedas,the only texts preserved from the early Vedic period and codified between c. 1200 and 900 BCE, contain references to yogic practices primarily related to ascetics outside, or on the fringes ofBrahmanism.TheRigveda'sNasadiya Suktasuggests an early Brahmanic contemplative tradition.Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in theAtharvavedaand in theBrahmanas(the second layer of the Vedas, composed c. 1000–800 BCE).

According to Flood, "TheSamhitas[the mantras of the Vedas] contain some references... to ascetics, namely theMunisorKeśinsand the Vratyas. "Werner wrote in 1977 that theRigvedadoes not describe yoga, and there is little evidence of practices.The earliest description of "an outsider who does not belong to the Brahminic establishment" is found in theKeśinhymn 10.136, theRigveda'syoungest book, which was codified around 1000 BCE.Werner wrote that there were

... individuals who were active outside the trend of Vedic mythological creativity and the Brahminic religious orthodoxy and therefore little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements has survived. And such evidence as is available in the Vedas themselves is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless the indirect evidence is strong enough not to allow any doubt about the existence of spiritually highly advanced wanderers.

According to Whicher (1998), scholarship frequently fails to see the connection between the contemplative practices of therishisand later yoga practices: "The proto-Yoga of the Vedicrishisis an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation, ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control practiced in conjunction with the recitation of sacred hymns during the ritual, the notion of self-sacrifice, impeccably accurate recitation of sacred words (prefiguringmantra-yoga), mystical experience, and the engagement with a reality far greater than our psychological identity or the ego. "Jacobsen wrote in 2018, "Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of (tapas), ascetic practices in the Vedic tradition "; ascetic practices used by Vedic priests" in their preparations for the performance of thesacrifice"may be precursors of yoga."The ecstatic practice of Enigma tic longhairedmuniinRgveda10.136 and the ascetic performance of thevratya-sin theAtharvavedaoutside of or on the fringe of the Brahmanical ritual order, have probably contributed more to the ascetic practices of yoga. "

According to Bryant, practices recognizable as classical yoga first appear in the Upanishads (composed during the lateVedic period).Alexander Wynne agrees that formless, elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition.An early reference to meditation is made in theBrihadaranyaka Upanishad(c. 900 BCE), one of thePrincipal Upanishads.TheChandogya Upanishad(c. 800–700 BCE) describes the five vital energies (prana), and concepts of later yoga traditions (such asblood vesselsand an internal sound) are also described in this upanishad.The practice ofpranayama(focusing on the breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,andpratyahara(withdrawal of the senses) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad.TheJaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana(probably before the 6th c. BCE) teaches breath control and repetition of amantra.The 6th-c. BCETaittiriya Upanishaddefines yoga as the mastery of body and senses.According to Flood, "[T]he actual termyogafirst appears in theKatha Upanishad,dated to the fifthto first centuries BCE.

Second urbanisation (500–200 BCE)

Main article:Second urbanisation

Systematic yoga concepts begin to emerge in texts dating to c. 500–200 BCE, such as theearly Buddhist texts,the middle Upanishads, and theMahabharata'sBhagavad GitaandShanti Parva.

Buddhism and the śramaṇa movement

Bas-relief inBorobudurof the Buddha becoming a wandering hermit instead of a warrior

According toGeoffrey Samuel,the "best evidence to date" suggests that yogic practices "developed in the same ascetic circles as the earlyśramaṇamovements (Buddhists,JainasandAjivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE. "This occurred during India'ssecond urbanisationperiod.According to Mallinson and Singleton, these traditions were the first to use mind-body techniques (known asDhyānaandtapas) but later described as yoga, to strive for liberation from the round of rebirth.

Werner writes, "The Buddha was the founder of his [Yoga] system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time."He notes:

But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in thePali Canonthat we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety.

Early Buddhist texts describe yogic and meditative practices, some of which the Buddha borrowed from theśramaṇatradition.ThePāli Canoncontains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate to control hunger or the mind, depending on the passage.There is no mention of the tongue inserted into thenasopharynx,as inkhecarī mudrā.The Buddha used a posture in which pressure is put on theperineumwith the heel, similar to modern postures used to evokeKundalini.Suttaswhich discuss yogic practice include theSatipatthana Sutta(thefour foundations of mindfulnesssutta) and theAnapanasati Sutta(themindfulness of breathingsutta).

The chronology of these yoga-related early Buddhist texts, like the ancient Hindu texts, is unclear.Early Buddhist sources such as theMajjhima Nikāyamention meditation; theAṅguttara Nikāyadescribesjhāyins(meditators) who resemble early Hindu descriptions ofmuni,the Kesin and meditating ascetics,but the meditation practices are not called "yoga" in these texts.The earliest known discussions of yoga in Buddhist literature, as understood in a modern context, are from the later BuddhistYogācāraandTheravadaschools.

Jain meditationis a yoga system which predated the Buddhist school. Since Jain sources are later than Buddhist ones, however, it is difficult to distinguish between the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools.Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded to in the Upanishads and some Buddhist texts have been lost.

Upanishads

The Upanishads, composed in the lateVedic period,contain the first references to practices recognizable as classical yoga.The first known appearance of the word "yoga" in the modern sense is in theKatha Upanishad(probably composed between the fifth and third centuries BCE),where it is defined as steady control of the senses which – with cessation of mental activity – leads to a supreme state.The Katha Upanishad integrates themonismof the early Upanishads with concepts ofsamkhyaand yoga. It defines levels of existence by their proximity to one'sinnermost being.Yoga is viewed as a process of interiorization, or ascent of consciousness.The upanishad is the earliest literary work which highlights the fundamentals of yoga. According to White,

The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad (Ku), a scripture dating from about the third century BCE... [I]t describes the hierarchy of mind-body constituents—the senses, mind, intellect, etc.—that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and other texts and schools (Ku3.10–11; 6.7–8).

The hymns in book two of theShvetashvatara Upanishad(another late-first-millennium BCE text) describe a procedure in which the body is upright, the breath is restrained and the mind is meditatively focused, preferably in a cave or a place that is simple and quiet.

TheMaitrayaniya Upanishad,probably composed later than the Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before theYoga Sutras of Patanjali,mentions a sixfold yoga method: breath control, introspective withdrawal of the senses, meditation (dhyana),mental concentration,logic and reasoning,andspiritual union.In addition to discussions in the Principal Upanishads, the twentyYoga Upanishadsand related texts (such asYoga Vasistha,composed between the sixth and 14th centuries CE) discuss yoga methods.

Macedonian texts

Alexander the Greatreached India in the 4th century BCE. In addition to his army, he brought Greek academics who wrote memoirs about its geography, people, and customs. One of Alexander's companions wasOnesicritus(quoted in Book 15, Sections 63–65 byStraboin hisGeography), who describes yogis.Onesicritus says that the yogis were aloof and adopted "different postures – standing or sitting or lying naked – and motionless".

Onesicritus also mentions attempts by his colleague,Calanus,to meet them. Initially denied an audience, he was later invited because he was sent by a "king curious of wisdom and philosophy".Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogis consider life's best doctrines to "rid the spirit of not only pain, but also pleasure", that "man trains the body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened", that "there is no shame in life on frugal fare", and that "the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit".According toCharles Rockwell Lanman,these principles are significant in the history of yoga's spiritual side and may reflect the roots of "undisturbed calmness" and "mindfulness through balance" in the later works ofPatanjaliandBuddhaghosa.

MahabharataandBhagavad Gita

Nirodhayoga(yoga of cessation), an early form of yoga, is described in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva) of the third-century BCEMahabharata.Nirodhayogaemphasizes progressive withdrawal from empirical consciousness, including thoughts and sensations, untilpurusha(self) is realized. Terms such asvichara(subtle reflection) andviveka(discrimination) similar to Patanjali's terminology are used, but not described.Although theMahabharatacontains no uniform yogic goal, the separation of self from matter and perception ofBrahmaneverywhere are described as goals of yoga.Samkhyaand yoga areconflated,and some verses describe them as identical.Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation.TheMahabharatadefines the purpose of yoga as uniting the individualātmanwith the universal Brahman pervading all things.

Krishnanarrating theBhagavad GitatoArjuna

TheBhagavad Gita(Song of the Lord), part of theMahabharata,contains extensive teachings about yoga. According to Mallinson and Singleton, theGita"seeks to appropriate yoga from the renunciate milieu in which it originated, teaching that it is compatible with worldly activity carried out according to one's caste and life stage; it is only the fruits of one's actions that are to be renounced."In addition to a chapter (chapter six) dedicated to traditional yoga practice (including meditation),it introduces three significant types of yoga:

• Karma yoga:yoga of action
• Bhakti yoga:yoga of devotion
• Jnana yoga:yoga of knowledge

TheGitaconsists of 18 chapters and 700shlokas(verses);each chapter is named for a different form of yoga.Some scholars divide theGitainto three sections; the first six chapters (280shlokas) deal with karma yoga, the middle six (209shlokas) with bhakti yoga, and the last six (211shlokaswith jnana yoga. However, elements of all three are found throughout the work.

Philosophical sutras

Yoga is discussed in the foundationalsutrasofHindu philosophy.TheVaiśeṣika Sūtraof theVaisheshikaschool of Hinduism, composed between the sixth and second centuries BCE, discusses yoga.According toJohannes Bronkhorst,theVaiśeṣika Sūtradescribes yoga as "a state where the mind resides only in the Self and therefore not in the senses".This is equivalent topratyahara(withdrawal of the senses). The sutra asserts that yoga leads to an absence ofsukha(happiness) anddukkha(suffering), describing meditative steps in the journey towards spiritual liberation.

TheBrahma Sutras,the foundation text of theVedantaschool of Hinduism, also discusses yoga.Estimated as completed in its surviving form between 450 BCE and 200 CE,its sutras assert that yoga is a means to attain "subtlety of body".TheNyaya Sutras—the foundation text of theNyayaschool, estimated as composed between the sixth century BCE and the secondcentury CE—discusses yoga in sutras 4.2.38–50. It includes a discussion of yogic ethics,dhyana(meditation) andsamadhi,noting that debate and philosophy are also forms of yoga.

Classical era (200 BCE – 500 CE)

The Indic traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking shape during the period between theMauryanand theGuptaeras (c. 200 BCE – 500 CE), and systems of yoga began to emerge;a number of texts from these traditions discussed and compiled yoga methods and practices. Key works of the era include theYoga Sūtras of Patañjali,theYoga-Yājñavalkya,theYogācārabhūmi-Śāstra,and theVisuddhimagga.

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

Traditional Hindu depiction ofPatanjalias an avatar of the divine serpentShesha

One of the best-known early expressions ofBrahminicalyoga thought is theYoga Sutras of Patanjali(early centuries CE,the original name of which may have been thePātañjalayogaśāstra-sāṃkhya-pravacana(c. 325–425 CE); some scholars believe that it included the sutras and a commentary.As the name suggests, the metaphysical basis of the text issamkhya;the school is mentioned in Kauṭilya'sArthashastraas one of the three categories ofanviksikis(philosophies), with yoga andCārvāka.Yoga and samkhya have some differences; yoga accepted the concept of a personal god, and Samkhya was a rational, non-theistic system of Hindu philosophy.Patanjali's system is sometimes called "Seshvara Samkhya", distinguishing it fromKapila's Nirivara Samkhya.The parallels between yoga and samkhya were so close thatMax Müllersays, "The two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord."Karel Wernerwrote that the systematization of yoga which began in the middle and early Yoga Upanishads culminated in theYoga Sutras of Patanjali.

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

Pada (Chapter)	English meaning	Sutras
Samadhi Pada	On being absorbed in spirit	51
Sadhana Pada	On being immersed in spirit	55
Vibhuti Pada	On supernatural abilities and gifts	56
Kaivalya Pada	On absolute freedom	34

TheYoga Sutrasare also influenced by the Sramana traditions of Buddhism and Jainism, and may be a further Brahmanical attempt to adopt yoga from those traditions.Larson noted a number of parallels in ancient samkhya, yoga andAbhidharmaBuddhism, particularly from the second century BCE to the first century AD.Patanjali'sYoga Sutrasare a synthesis of the three traditions. From Samkhya, they adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) ofprakrtiandpurusa(dualism), their metaphysical rationalism, and their threeepistemologicalmethods of obtaining knowledge.Larson says that theYoga Sutraspursue an altered state of awareness from Abhidharma Buddhism'snirodhasamadhi;unlike Buddhism's "no self or soul", however, yoga (like Samkhya) believes that each individual has a self.The third concept which theYoga Sutrassynthesize is theascetictradition of meditation and introspection.

Patanjali'sYoga Sutrasare considered the first compilation of yoga philosophy.The verses of theYoga Sutrasare terse. Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries, such as theVyasa Bhashya(c. 350–450 CE).Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra, and his terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms.I. K. Taimnitranslates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta) ".Swami Vivekanandatranslates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis). "Edwin Bryantwrites that to Patanjali, "Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object."

Baba Hari Dasswrites that if yoga is understood asnirodha(mental control), its goal is "the unqualified state ofniruddha(the perfection of that process) "."Yoga (union) implies duality (as in joining of two things or principles); the result of yoga is the nondual state... as the union of the lower self and higher Self. The nondual state is characterized by the absence of individuality; it can be described as eternal peace, pure love, Self-realization, or liberation."

Patanjali defined aneight-limbed yogainYoga Sutras2.29:

1. Yama(The five abstentions):Ahimsa(Non-violence, non-harming other living beings),Satya(truthfulness, non-falsehood),Asteya(non-stealing),Brahmacharya(celibacy, fidelity to one's partner),andAparigraha(non-avarice, non-possessiveness).
2. Niyama(The five "observances" ):Śauca(purity, clearness of mind, speech and body),Santosha(contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances),Tapas(persistent meditation, perseverance, austerity),Svādhyāya(study of self, self-reflection, study of Vedas),andIshvara-Pranidhana(contemplation of God/Supreme Being/True Self).
3. Asana:Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.
4. Pranayama( "Breath exercises" ):Prāna,breath, "āyāma", to "stretch, extend, restrain, stop".
5. Pratyahara( "Abstraction" ): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
6. Dharana( "Concentration" ): Fi xing the attention on a single object.
7. Dhyana( "Meditation" ): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
8. Samadhi( "Liberation" ): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

In Hindu scholasticism since the 12th century, yoga has been one of the sixorthodoxphilosophical schools (darsanas): traditions which accept the Vedas.

Yoga and Vedanta

Yoga andVedantaare the two largest surviving schools of Hindu traditions. Although they share many principles, concepts, and the belief in Self, they differ in degree, style, and methods; yoga accepts three means to obtain knowledge, andAdvaita Vedantaaccepts.Yoga disputes Advaita Vedanta'smonism.It believes that in the state ofmoksha,each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as an independent identity; Advaita Vedanta teaches that in the state ofmoksha,each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as part of oneness with everything, everyone and the Universal Self. They both hold that the free conscience is transcendent, liberated and self-aware. Advaita Vedanta also encourages the use of Patanjali's yoga practices and theUpanishadsfor those seeking the supreme good and ultimatefreedom.

Yoga Yajnavalkya

Main article:Yoga Yajnavalkya

संयोगो योग इत्युक्तो जीवात्मपरमात्मनोः॥
saṁyogo yoga ityukto jīvātma-paramātmanoḥ॥
Yoga is the union of the individual self (jivātma) with the supreme self (paramātma).

—Yoga Yajnavalkya

TheYoga Yajnavalkyais a classical treatise on yoga, attributed to the Vedic sageYajnavalkya,in the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and the renowned philosopherGargi Vachaknavi.The origin of the 12-chapter text has been traced to the second century BCE and the fourth century CE.A number of yoga texts, such as theHatha Yoga Pradipika,theYoga Kundaliniand theYoga Tattva Upanishads,have borrowed from (or frequently refer to) theYoga Yajnavalkya.It discusses eight yogaasanas(Swastika, Gomukha, Padma, Vira, Simha, Bhadra, Mukta and Mayura),a number of breathing exercises for body cleansing,and meditation.

Abhidharma and Yogachara

Asanga,a fourth-century scholar and co-founder of the Yogachara ( "Yoga practice" ) school of Mahayana Buddhism

The Buddhist tradition ofAbhidharmaspawned treatises which expanded teachings on Buddhist theory and yoga techniques which influencedMahayanaandTheravadaBuddhism. At the height of theGupta period(fourth to fifth centuries CE), a northern Mahayana movement known asYogācārabegan to be systematized with the writings of Buddhist scholarsAsangaandVasubandhu.Yogācāra Buddhism provided a systematic framework for practices which lead abodhisattvatowards awakening and fullBuddhahood.Its teachings are found in the encyclopedicYogācārabhūmi-Śāstra(Treatisefor Yoga Practitioners), which was also translated into Tibetan and Chinese and influencedEast AsianandTibetan Buddhisttraditions.Mallinson and Singleton write that the study of Yogācāra Buddhism is essential to understand yoga's early history, and its teachings influenced thePātañjalayogaśāstra.The South India and Sri Lankan-basedTheravadaschool also developed manuals for yogic and meditative training, primarily theVimuttimaggaand theVisuddhimagga.

Jainism

Main article:Jainism

According toTattvarthasutra,a second-to-fifth century Jain text, yoga is the sum of all activities of mind, speech and body.Umasvaticalls yoga the generator ofkarma,and essential to the path to liberation.In hisNiyamasara,Kundakundadescribesyoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as the highest form of devotion.HaribhadraandHemacandranote the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity in yoga. According toRobert J. Zydenbos,Jainism is a system of yogic thinking which became a religion.Thefive yamas(constraints) of theYoga Sutras of Patanjaliare similar to Jainism'sfive major vows,indicating cross-fertilization between these traditions.Hinduism's influence on Jain yoga may be seen in Haribhadra'sYogadṛṣṭisamuccaya,which outlines an eightfold yoga influenced by Patanjali's eightfold yoga.

Middle Ages (500–1500 CE)

Male and femaleyogisin 17th- and 18th-century India

The Middle Ages saw the development of satellite yoga traditions.Hatha yogaemerged during this period.

Bhakti movement

Main article:Bhakti yoga

In medieval Hinduism, theBhakti movementadvocated the concept of apersonal godorSupreme Personality.The movement, begun by theAlvarsof South India during the 6th to 9th centuries, became influential throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries.ShaivaandVaishnavabhaktitraditions integrated aspects of theYoga Sutras(such as meditative exercises) with devotion.TheBhagavata Puranaelucidates a form of yoga known asviraha(separation)bhakti,which emphasizes concentration on Krishna.

Tantra

Tantrais a range of esoteric traditions which had begun to arise in India by the 5th century CE.Its use suggests that the wordtantrain theRigvedameans "technique". George Samuel wrote thattantrais a contested term, but may be considered a school whose practices appeared in nearly-complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about the 10th century CE.Tantric yoga developed complex visualizations, which included meditation on the body as a microcosm of the cosmos. It included mantras, breath control, and body manipulation (including itsnadisandchakras.Teachings about chakras and Kundalini became central to later forms of Indian yoga.

Tantric concepts influenced Hindu,Bon,Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Elements of Tantric rituals were adopted by, and influenced, state functions in medieval Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms inEastandSoutheast Asia.By the turn of the first millennium,hatha yogaemerged fromtantra.

Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism

Vajrayanais also known as Tantric Buddhism andTantrayāna.Its texts began to be compiled during the seventh century CE, andTibetantranslations were completed the following century. Thesetantratexts were the main source of Buddhist knowledge imported into Tibet,and were later translated into Chinese and other Asian languages. The Buddhist textHevajra Tantraandcaryāgitiintroduced hierarchies of chakras.Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism.

Tantra yoga practices include postures and breathing exercises. TheNyingmaschool practicesyantra yoga,a discipline which includes breath work, meditation and other exercises.Nyingma meditation is divided into stages,such asKriya Yoga,Upa yoga, Yoga yana,mahā yoga,Anu yogaandatiyoga.TheSarmatraditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya" ), and yoga, withanuttara yogareplacing mahayoga and atiyoga.

Zen Buddhism

Zen,whose name derives from the Sanskritdhyānavia the Chinesech'an,is a form of Mahayana Buddhism in which yoga is an integral part.

Medieval hatha yoga

Sculpture ofGorakshanath,an 11th-century yogi of theNathtradition and a proponent of hatha yoga

The first references to hatha yoga are in eighth-century Buddhist works.The earliest definition of hatha yoga is in the 11th-century Buddhist textVimalaprabha.Hatha yoga blends elements of Patanjali'sYoga Sutraswith posture and breathing exercises.It marks the development of asanas into the full-body postures in current popular useand, with its modern variations, is the style presently associated with the word "yoga".

Sikhism

Yogic groups became prominent inPunjabduring the 15th and 16th centuries, whenSikhismwas beginning. Compositions byGuru Nanak(the founder of Sikhism) describe dialogues he had withJogis,a Hindu community which practiced yoga. Guru Nanak rejected the austerities, rites and rituals associated with hatha yoga, advocating sahaja yoga or nama yoga instead.According to theGuru Granth Sahib,

O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. The devotee must meditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. He understands, he also sees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination.

Modern revival

Introduction in the West

Swami Vivekananda in London in 1896

Yoga and other aspects of Indian philosophy came to the attention of the educated Western public during the mid-19th century, andN. C. Paulpublished hisTreatise on Yoga Philosophyin 1851.Swami Vivekananda,the first Hindu teacher to advocate and disseminate elements of yoga to a Western audience, toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s.His reception built on the interest of intellectuals who included theNew England Transcendentalists;among them wereRalph Waldo Emerson(1803–1882), who drew onGerman Romanticismand philosophers and scholars such asGeorg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel(1770–1831), the brothersAugust Wilhelm Schlegel(1767–1845) andFriedrich Schlegel(1772–1829),Max Mueller(1823–1900), andArthur Schopenhauer(1788–1860).

Theosophists,includingHelena Blavatsky,also influenced the Western public's view of yoga.Esoteric views at the end of the 19th century encouraged the reception of Vedanta and yoga, with their correspondence between the spiritual and the physical.The reception of yoga and Vedanta entwined with the (primarilyneoplatonic) currents of religious and philosophical reform andtransformationduring the 19th and early 20th centuries.Mircea Eliadebrought a new element to yoga, emphasizing tantric yoga in hisYoga: Immortality and Freedom.With the introduction of tantra traditions and philosophy, the conception of the "transcendent" attained by yogic practice shifted from the mind to the body.

Yoga as exercise

Main article:Yoga as exercise

Large public yoga class in a New York City park

The postural yoga of the Western world is a physical activity consisting of asanas (often connected bysmooth transitions,sometimes accompanied by breathing exercises and usually ending with a period of relaxation or meditation. It is often known simply as "yoga",despite older Hindu traditions (some dating to theYoga Sutras) in which asanas played little or no part; asanas were not central to any tradition.

Yoga as exercise is part of a modern yoga renaissance,a 20th-century blend of Western gymnastics and haṭha yoga pioneered byShri YogendraandSwami Kuvalayananda.Before 1900, hatha yoga had few standing poses; theSun Salutationwas pioneered by Bhawanrao Shrinivasrao Pant Pratinidhi, the Rajah of Aundh, during the 1920s.Many standing poses used in gymnastics were incorporated into yoga byKrishnamacharyain Mysore between the 1930s and the 1950s.Several of his students founded schools of yoga.Pattabhi Joiscreatedashtanga vinyasa yoga,which led toPower Yoga;B. K. S. IyengarcreatedIyengar Yogaand systematised asanas in his 1966 book,Light on Yoga;Indra Devitaught yoga to Hollywood actors; and Krishnamacharya's son,T. K. V. Desikachar,founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandalam inChennai.Other schools founded during the 20th century includeBikram Choudhury'sBikram YogaandSwami SivanandaofRishikesh'sSivananda yoga.Modern yoga has spread around the world.

International Day of Yoga in New Delhi, 2016

The number of asanas used in yoga has increased from 84 in 1830 (as illustrated inJoga Pradipika) to about 200 inLight on Yogaand over 900 performed byDharma Mittraby 1984. The goal of haṭha yoga (spiritual liberation through energy) was largely replaced by the goals of fitness and relaxation, and many of its more esoteric components were reduced or removed.The term "hatha yoga" also refers to gentle yoga, often forwomen.

Yoga has developed into a worldwide, multi-billion-dollar business involving classes, teacher certification, clothing, books, videos, equipment, and holidays.The ancient, cross-leggedlotus positionandSiddhasanaare widely-recognised symbols of yoga.TheUnited Nations General Assemblyestablished 21 June as theInternational Day of Yoga,and it has been celebrated annually around the world since 2015.On 1 December 2016, yoga was listed byUNESCOas anintangible cultural heritage.

The effect of postural yoga on physical and mental health has been a subject of study, with evidence that regular yoga practice is beneficial for low back pain and stress.In 2017, aCochranereview found that yoga interventions designed for chroniclow back painincreased function at the six month mark, and modestly decreased pain after 3–4 months. The decrease in pain was found to be similar to other exercise programs designed for low-back pain, but the decrease is not large enough to be deemed clinically significant.Theories of the mechanism underlying these changes include the increase in strength and flexibility, physical and mental relaxation and increased body awareness.

Traditions

Yoga is practised with a variety of methods by allIndian religions.In Hinduism, practices includejnana yoga,bhakti yoga,karma yoga,kundalini yoga,andhatha yoga.

Jain yoga

Main article:Jain meditation

Yoga has been a central practice inJainism.Jain spirituality is based on a strict code of nonviolence, orahimsa(which includesvegetarianism), almsgiving (dāna), faith in thethree jewels,austerities (tapas) such asfasting,and yoga.Jain yoga aims at the liberation and purification of the self from the forces ofkarma,which binds the self to the cycle ofreincarnation.Like yoga and Sankhya, Jainism believes in a number of individual selves bound by their individual karma.Only through the reduction of karmic influences and the exhaustion of collected karma can one become purified and released.Early Jain yoga seems to have been divided into several types, including meditation, abandonment of the body (kāyotsarga),contemplation,and reflection (bhāvanā).

Buddhist yoga

Gautama Buddhain seated meditation,Gal Vihara,Sri Lanka

Main articles:Buddhist meditationandDhyāna in Buddhism

Buddhist yoga encompasses a variety of methods which aim to develop the37 aids to awakening.Its ultimate goal isbodhi(awakening) ornirvana(cessation), traditionally seen as the permanent end of suffering (dukkha) andrebirth.Buddhist textsuse a number of terms for spiritualpraxisin addition to yoga, such asbhāvanā( "development" )andjhāna/dhyāna.

Inearly Buddhism,yoga practices included:

• the fourdhyānas(four meditations or mental absorptions),
• thefoursatipatthanas(foundations or establishments of mindfulness),
• anapanasati(mindfulness of breath),
• thefour immaterial dwellings(supranormal states of mind),
• thebrahmavihārās(divine abodes).
• Anussati(contemplations, recollections)

These meditations were seen as supported by the other elements of theNoble Eightfold Path,such asethics,right exertion,sense restraint andright view.Two mental qualities are said to be indispensable for yoga practice in Buddhism:samatha(calm, stability) andvipassanā(insight, clear seeing).Samathais a stable, relaxed mind, associated withsamadhi(mental unification, focus) anddhyana(a state of meditative absorption).Vipassanāis insight or penetrative understanding into the true nature of phenomena, also defined as "seeing things as they truly are" (yathābhūtaṃ darśanam). A unique feature of classical Buddhism is its understanding of all phenomena (dhammas) as being empty of a self.

Later developments in Buddhist traditions led to innovations in yoga practice. The conservativeTheravadaschool developed new ideas on meditation and yoga in its later works, the most influential of which is theVisuddhimagga.Mahayana meditation teachings may be seen in theYogācārabhūmi-Śāstra,compiled c. 4th century. Mahayana also developed and adopted yoga methods such as the use ofmantrasanddharani,pure land practicesaiming at rebirth in apure land or buddhafield,and visualization. Chinese Buddhism developed theChanpractice ofKoanintrospection andHua Tou.Tantric Buddhismdeveloped and adopted tantric methods which are the basis of the Tibetan Buddhist yoga systems, includingdeity yoga,guru yoga,thesix yogas of Naropa,Kalacakra,MahamudraandDzogchen.

Classical yoga

Main article:Yoga (philosophy)

What is often referred to as classical yoga,ashtanga yoga,orrāja yogais primarily the yoga outlined in the dualisticYoga Sutras of Patanjali.The origins of classical yoga are unclear, although early discussions of the term appear in the Upanishads.Rāja yoga(yoga of kings) originally denoted the ultimate goal of yoga;samadhi,but was popularised byVivekanandaas a common name for ashtanga yoga,the eight limbs attain samadhi as described in theYoga Sutras.Yoga philosophy came to be regarded as a distinct orthodox school (darsanas) of Hinduism in the second half of the first millennium CE.

Classical yoga incorporates epistemology, metaphysics, ethical practices, systematic exercises and self-development for body, mind and spirit.Itsepistemology(pramana) and metaphysics are similar to theSāṅkhyaschool. The Classical yoga's metaphysics, like Sāṅkhya's, primarily posits two distinct realities:prakriti(nature, the eternal and active unconscious source of the material world composed of threeguṇas) andpuruṣa(consciousness), the plural consciousnesses which are the intelligent principles of the world.Moksha (liberation) results from the isolation (kaivalya)ofpuruṣafromprakirti,and is achieved through meditation, stilling one's thought waves (citta vritti) and resting in pure awareness ofpuruṣa.Unlike Sāṅkhya, which takes a non-theistic approach,the yoga school of Hinduism accepts a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" (Ishvara).

In Advaita Vedanta

Raja Ravi Varma'sAdi Shankara with Disciples(1904)

Vedantais a varied tradition, with a number of sub-schools and philosophical views. It focuses on the study of theUpanishadsand theBrahma Sutras(one of its early texts), about gaining spiritual knowledge ofBrahman:the unchanging, absolute reality.

One of the earliest and most influential sub-traditions of Vedanta isAdvaita Vedanta,which positsnon-dualisticmonism.It emphasizesjñāna yoga(yoga of knowledge), which aims at realizing the identity of one's atman (individual consciousness) with Brahman (the Absolute consciousness).The most influential thinker of this school isAdi Shankara(8th century), who wrote commentaries and other works on jñāna yoga. In Advaita Vedanta, jñāna is attained from scripture, one'sguru,and through a process of listening to (and meditating on) teachings.Qualities such as discrimination, renunciation, tranquility, temperance, dispassion, endurance, faith, attention, and a longing for knowledge and freedom are also desirable.Yoga in Advaita is a "meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness".

Yoga Vasisthais an influential Advaita textwhich usesshort stories and anecdotesto illustrate its ideas. Teaching seven stages of yoga practice, it was a major reference for medieval Advaita Vedanta yoga scholars and one of the most popular texts on Hindu yoga before the 12th century.Another text which teaches yoga from an Advaita point of view is theYoga Yajnavalkya.

Tantric yoga

Main article:Tantra

According to Samuel, Tantra is a contested concept.Tantra yoga may be described as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu (Saiva, Shakti) texts which included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometric arrays and drawings (mandalas), male and (particularly) female deities, life-stage-related rituals, the use ofchakrasandmantras,and sexual techniques aimed at aiding one's health, longevity and liberation.

Hatha yoga

Viparītakaraṇī,a posture used as an asana and amudra

Main article:Hatha yoga

Hatha yoga focuses on physical and mental strength-building exercises and postures described primarily in three Hindu texts:

1. Hatha Yoga Pradipikaby Svātmārāma (15th century)
2. Shiva Samhita,author unknown (1500or late 17th century)
3. Gheranda Samhitaby Gheranda (late 17th century)

Some scholars includeGorakshanath's 11th-centuryGoraksha Samhitaon the list,since Gorakshanath is considered responsible for popularizing present-day hatha yoga.VajrayanaBuddhism, founded by the IndianMahasiddhas,has a series of asanas and pranayamas (such astummo)which resemble hatha yoga.

Laya and kundalini yoga

Laya andkundalini yoga,closely associated with hatha yoga, are often presented as independent approaches.According toGeorg Feuerstein,laya yoga (yoga of dissolution or merging) "makes meditative absorption (laya) its focus. The laya-yogin seeks to transcend all memory traces and sensory experiences by dissolving the microcosm, the mind, in the transcendental Self-Consciousness. "Laya yoga has a number of techniques which include listening to the "inner sound" (nada), mudras such asKhechariand Shambhavi mudra, and awakeningkundalini(body energy).

Kundalini yoga aims to awaken bodily andcosmic energywith breath and body techniques, uniting them with universal consciousness.A common teaching method awakens kundalini in the lowestchakraand guides it through the central channel to unite with the absolute consciousness in the highest chakra, at the top of the head.

Reception by other religions

Christianity

Further information:Category:Christian yoga

Some Christians integratephysical aspectsof yoga, stripped from thespiritual rootsofHinduism,and other aspects of Eastern spirituality withprayer,meditationandJesus-centricaffirmations.The practice also includes renaming poses in English (rather than using the originalSanskritterms), and abandoninginvolved Hindu mantrasas well asthe philosophy of Yoga;Yoga is associated and reframed intoChristianity.This has drawn charges ofcultural appropriationfrom various Hindu groups;scholars remain skeptical.Previously, theRoman Catholic Church,and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern andNew Agepractices that include yoga and meditation.

In 1989 and 2003, theVaticanissued two documents:Aspects of Christian meditationand "A Christian reflection on the New Age,"that were mostly critical of eastern andNew Agepractices. The 2003 document was published as a 90-page handbook detailing the Vatican's position.The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cult of the body" and that equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral deviations." Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposed thegnostics' belief that salvation came not through faith but through mystical inner knowledge.The letter also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched by meditation methods developed in other religions and cultures"but maintains the idea that "there must be some fit between the nature of [other approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality."SomefundamentalistChristian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background, considering it a part of theNew Age movementinconsistent with Christianity.

Islam

Early-11th-century Persian scholarAl-Birunivisited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and (with their help) translated several Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian; one of these was Patanjali'sYoga Sutras.Although Al-Biruni's translation preserved many core themes of Patañjali's yoga philosophy, some sutras and commentaries were restated for consistency with monotheistic Islamic theology.Al-Biruni's version of theYoga Sutrasreached Persia and theArabian Peninsulaby about 1050. During the 16th century, the hatha yoga textAmritakundawas translated into Arabic and Persian.Yoga was, however, not accepted by mainstreamSunniandShia Islam.MinorityIslamicsects such as the mysticSufimovement, particularly in South Asia, adopted Indian yoga postures and breath control.Muhammad Ghawth, a 16th-century Shattari Sufi and translator of yoga text, was criticized for his interest in yoga and persecuted for his Sufi beliefs.

Malaysia's topIslamicbody imposed a legally-enforceable 2008fatwaprohibitingMuslimsfrom practicing yoga, saying that it had elements ofHinduismand its practice washaramasblasphemy.Malaysian Muslims who had been practicing yoga for years called the decision "insulting."Sisters in Islam,a Malaysian women's-rights group, expressed disappointment and said that yoga was a form of exercise.Malaysia's prime minister clarified that yoga as exercise is permissible, but the chanting of religious mantras is not.

TheIndonesian Ulema Council(MUI) imposed a 2009 fatwa banning yoga because it contains Hindu elements.These fatwas have been criticized byDarul Uloom Deoband,aDeobandiIslamic seminary in India.Similar fatwas banning yoga for its link to Hinduism were imposed by Grand MuftiAli GomaainEgyptin 2004, and by Islamic clerics in Singapore earlier.

According to Iran's yoga association, the country had about 200 yoga centres in May 2014. One-quarter were in the capital,Tehran,where groups could be seen practising in parks; conservatives were opposed.In May 2009, TurkishDirectorate of Religious AffairsheadAli Bardakoğludiscounted personal-development techniques such asreikiand yoga as commercial ventures which could lead to extremism. According to Bardakoğlu, reiki and yoga could be a form of proselytizing at the expense of Islam.Nouf Marwaaibrought yoga toSaudi Arabiain 2017, contributing to making it legal and recognized despite being allegedly threatened by her community who asserts yoga as "un-Islamic".

See also

• List of asanas
• Modern yoga gurus
• List of yoga schools
• Sun Salutation
• Yoga tourism
• Yogis
• Mallakhamba,a form of yoga performed on a pole
• Traditional games of India

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