Vaginoplasty
Vaginoplasty | |
---|---|
ICD-9-CM | 70.64,70.62,70.64,70.94,70.6,70.95 |
MeSH | D013509 |
Vaginoplastyis any surgical procedure that results in the construction or reconstruction of thevagina.It is a type ofgenitoplasty.Pelvic organ prolapseis often treated with one or more surgeries to repair the vagina. Sometimes a vaginoplasty is needed following the treatment or removal ofmalignant growthsorabscessesto restore a normal vaginal structure and function. Surgery to the vagina is done to correctcongenital defectsto the vagina,urethraandrectum.It may correct protrusion of theurinary bladderinto the vagina (cystocele) and protrusion of the rectum (rectocele) into the vagina.[1]Often, a vaginoplasty is performed to repair the vagina and its attached structures due to trauma or injury.
Congenital disorderssuch asadrenal hyperplasiacan affect the structure and function of the vagina and sometimes the vagina is absent; these can be reconstructed or formed, using a vaginoplasty.[2]Other candidates for the surgery include babies born with a microphallus, people withMüllerian agenesisresulting invaginal hypoplasia,trans women,and women who have had a vaginectomy after malignancy or trauma.[3][4]
Medical uses
[edit]Vaginoplasty is the description of the following surgical interventions:
- separation of congenitally fused urethra and vagina[5]
- repair of a urethra that is short[5]
- vaginal construction[3][6]
- vaginalreconstruction[3][6]
- vaginal vaultprolapse[7]
- vaginal suspension and fixation[3][6]
- operations onrecto-uterine pouch[3][6]
- repair ofcystocele[3][6]andrectocele[3]
- retropubic paravaginal repair[8]
- the repair of a cystocele using agraftorprosthesis[3][6]
- the repair of a cystocele and a rectocele in the same procedure using a graft or prosthetic device[3][6]
- the repair of a rectocele using a graft orprosthetic material[3]
- the vaginal construction using a graft or prosthetic material[3][9]
- the vaginal reconstruction using a graft or prosthetic material[3]
- the vaginal suspension and stabilization using with graft or prosthetic material
- treatment ofMRKH syndrome(vaginal agenesis)[9]
- hymenorrhaphy
In some instances, extra tissue is needed to reconstruct or construct the vagina. These grafts used in vaginoplasty can be anallotransplantation,aheterograft,or anautologousmaterial.[9][10]A woman can use an autologous in vitro cultured tissue taken from her vaginal vestibule as transplanted tissue to form the lining of the reconstructed vagina.[9]A reconstructed or newly constructed vagina is called aneovagina.[11]
Vaginoplasties in children
[edit]Conditions such ascongenital adrenal hyperplasiavirilize genetic females due to a21-hydroxylasedeficiency. Specific procedures include: clitoral reduction,labiaplasty,normalizing appearance, vagina creation, initiating vaginal dilation.[12]Vaginal atresia,or congenital absence of the vagina, can be another reason for surgery to construct a normal and functional vagina.[13]Vaginoplasty is used as part of the series of surgeries needed to treat those girls and women born with thebladder located outside of their abdomen.After the repairs, women have been able to give birth but are at risk of prolapse.[1]
There are human rights concerns about vaginoplasties and other genital surgeries in children who are not old enough to consent,[14][15]including concern with post-surgical sexual function,[16]and assumptions ofcisnormativity.[17]There is no consensus attitude among clinicians about their necessity, timing, method or evaluation.[12]Vaginoplasties may be performed in children or adolescents withintersexconditions ordisorders of sex development.[18]
Techniques
[edit]Non-surgical vagina creation was used in the past to treat thecongenitalabsence of a vagina. The procedure involved the wearing of a saddle-like device and the use of increasing-diameterdilators.The procedure took several months and was sometimes painful. It was not effective in every instance.[2]Uncommon growths, cysts, septums in the vagina can also require vaginoplasty.[19]
Reconstructive surgery after cancer treatment
[edit]Radiological cancer treatmentcan result in the destruction or alteration of vaginal tissues. Vaginoplasty is often performed to reconstruct the vagina and other genital structures. In some cases, normal sexual function can be restored.[3]
McIndoe surgical technique
[edit]A canal is surgically constructed between theurinary bladderandurethrain the anterior portion of the pelvic region and therectum.A skin graft is used from another area of the person's body. The graft is removed from thethigh,buttocks,oringuinalregion. Other materials have been used to create the lining of the new vagina. These have been cutaneousskin flaps,amniotic membranes,andbuccal mucosa.[3][9]
Gender-affirming surgery
[edit]Several techniques may be used ingender-affirming surgeryto create a neovagina.
Penile inversion
[edit]Inversion of the penile skin is the method most often selected to create a neovagina by surgeons performing gender-affirming surgery. The inverted penile skin uses inferior pedicle skin or abdominal skin for the lining of the neovagina. The skin is cut to form an appropriate-sized flap. The skin flap is sometimes combined with a scrotal or urethral flap.[4]
The penile inversion technique was pioneered byGeorges Burouin his Morocco clinic in the 1950s.[20]By the 1970s he had performed hundreds of them, and gave his first public presentation of his technique to a conference at Stanford University in 1973,[21]after which it gradually became the predominant technique worldwide.
Bowel vaginoplasty
[edit]Bowel vaginoplasty is another commonly used method to create a neovagina in gender-affirming surgery.[4]
Other methods
[edit]Penile-scrotalskin flaps are also used. Nongenital full-thickness graft (FTG) or split-thickness skin grafts from other parts of the body have been used.[citation needed]
Elective vaginoplasty
[edit]Critics have labeled such surgery as the "designer vagina". TheAmerican College of Obstetricians and Gynecologistsissued a warning against these procedures in 2007[22]as did theRoyal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists,[23]and a commentary in theBritish Medical Journalstrongly criticized the "designer vagina" in 2009.[23][24]TheSociety of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canadapublished a policy statement against elective vaginoplasty based upon the risks associated with unnecessary cosmetic surgery in 2013.[25]
The World Health Organization describes any medically unnecessary surgery to the vaginal tissue and organs asfemale genital mutilation.[26]
Vaginal rejuvenation is a form of elective plastic surgery. Its purpose is to restore or enhance the vagina's cosmetic appearance.[24]
Hymen surgical procedures
[edit]Animperforate hymenis the presence of tissue that completely covers the vaginal opening. It is cut to allow menstrual flow to exit during a short surgical procedure.[1]Ahymenorrhaphyis the surgical procedure that reconstructs the hymen.
Balloon vaginoplasty
[edit]In this procedure, aFoley catheterislaparoscopicallyinserted to the rectouterine pouch whereupon gradual traction and distension are applied to create a neovagina.[citation needed]
Pull through or Vecchietti procedure
[edit]In treatingMüllerian agenesis,the Vecchietti procedure is alaparoscopicsurgical technique that produces avaginaof dimensions (depth and width) comparable to those of a normal vagina (ca. 8 cm deep).[27][28]A small, plastic sphere called an olive is threaded (sutured) against the vaginal area; the threads are drawn though the vaginal skin, up through theabdomen,and through thenavel.There, the threads are attached to a traction device, and then daily are drawn tight so that the olive is pulled inwards and stretches the vagina, by approximately 1 cm per day, thereby creating a vagina, approximately 7 cm deep by 7 cm wide, in 7 days. The mean operating room (OR) time for the Vecchietti vaginoplasty is approximately 45 minutes; yet, depending upon the patient and her indications, the procedure might require more time.[29]The outcomes of Vecchietti technique via the laparoscopic approach are found to be comparable to the procedure using laparotomy.[30]Invaginal hypoplasia,traction vaginoplasty such as the Vecchietti technique seems to have the highest success rates both anatomically (99%) and functionally (96%) among available treatments.[31][19]
Other surgical techniques that have been developed include ileal neovagina (Monti's technique), Creatsas vaginoplasty, Wharton–Sheares–George neovaginoplasty, or the Davydov procedure. The most widely used is the Vecchietti laparoscopic procedure. Sometimes sexual intercourse can result in the dilation of a newly constructed vagina.[9]
Vaginal dilators and expanders
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Inflatable_vaginal_expander.jpg/280px-Inflatable_vaginal_expander.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/ZSI_200_NS_Vaginal_Expander_in_Vagina.jpg/280px-ZSI_200_NS_Vaginal_Expander_in_Vagina.jpg)
The most techniques of vaginoplasty are using inflatable vaginal expanders or vaginal stents to design the vaginal diameter and length.[32][33]At the end of the procedure the device stays in place to maintain the neovagina against the pelvic wall which also favors the process of microscopic neovascularization and reduces the risks of hematoma. In post-operative setting the expander can be used regularly to prevent post-operative vaginal retraction.[34]Solid vaginal dilators can also be used immediately after surgery to keep the passage from attachments, and regularly thereafter to maintain the viability of the neovagina. The frequency required to use decreases over time, however remains obligatory lifelong.[35][36]
Risks and complications
[edit]Reconstructive vaginoplasty in children and adolescents carries the risk ofsuperinfection.[19]
In adults, rates and types ofcomplicationsvaried with gender-affirming surgery.Necrosisof the clitoral region was 1–3%. Necrosis of the surgically created vagina was 3.7–4.2%. Vaginal shrinkage occurred was documented in 2–10% of those treated.Stricture,or narrowing of the vaginal orifice was reported in 12–15% of the cases. Of those reporting stricture, 41% underwent a second operation to correct the condition. Necrosis of twoscrotalflaps has been described. Posterior vaginal wall is a rare complication.Genital painwas reported in 4–9%. Rectovaginalfistulais also rare with only 1% documented. Vaginal prolapse was seen in 1–2% of peopleassigned male at birthundergoing this procedure.[4]
The ability of emptying thebladderwas affected for some patients after this procedure: 13% reported improvement, 68% said that there was no change and 19% reported thatvoidinggot worse. Those reporting a negative outcome who experienced loss of bladder control andurinary incontinencewere 19%.Urinary tract infectionsoccurred in 32% of those treated.[4]
History
[edit]Reports of people seeking vaginoplasty go back to the 2nd century.[37][38]The first modern vaginoplasty was performed in 1931 onDora Richter.[37][39][40]Lili Elbealso underwent a vaginoplasty the same year.[41]
See also
[edit]- Intersex medical interventions
- Gender-affirming surgery (male-to-female)
- List of transgender-related topics
- Enterocele
- Sigmoidocele
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