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For other uses, seeVegetable (disambiguation).
"Veggie" and "Veg" redirect here. For other uses, seeVeggie (disambiguation)andVeg (disambiguation).

Vegetables in amarketin thePhilippines

Vegetablesare parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. The original meaning is still commonly used and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including theflowers,fruits,stems,leaves,roots,andseeds.An alternative definition of the term is applied somewhat arbitrarily, often by culinary and cultural tradition. It may exclude foods derived from some plants that are fruits,flowers,nuts,andcerealgrains, but include savoury fruits such astomatoesandcourgettes,flowerssuch asbroccoli,and seeds such aspulses.

Originally, vegetables were collected from the wild byhunter-gatherersand entered cultivation in several parts of the world, probably during the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC, when a newagricultural way of lifedeveloped. At first, plants that grew locally were cultivated, but as time went on, trade brought common and exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types. Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations.Chinais the largest producer of vegetables, and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries. The scale of production varies fromsubsistence farmerssupplying the needs of their family for food, toagribusinesseswith vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing.

Vegetables can be eaten either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates, but high in vitamins, minerals anddietary fiber.Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, five or more portions a day often being recommended.

Etymology

The wordvegetablewas first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes fromOld French,[1]and was originally applied to all plants; the word is still used in this sense in biological contexts.[2]It derives fromMedieval Latinvegetabilis"growing, flourishing" (i.e. of a plant), a semantic change from aLate Latinmeaning "to be enlivening, quickening".[1]

The meaning of "vegetable" as a "plant grown for food" was not established until the 18th century.[3]In 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a "plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root". The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term "veggie".[4]

As anadjective,the wordvegetableis used in scientific and technical contexts with a different and much broader meaning, namely of "related to plants" in general, edible or not—as invegetable matter,vegetable kingdom,vegetable origin,etc.[2]

Terminology

See also:Fruit § Botanical vs. culinary

The exact definition of "vegetable" may vary simply because of the many parts of a plant consumed as food worldwide—roots, stems, leaves, flowers,fruits,and seeds. The broadest definition is the word's use adjectivally to mean "matter of plant origin". More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as "any plant, part of which is used for food",[5]a secondary meaning then being "the edible part of such a plant".[5]A more precise definition is "any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, but including mature fruits that are eaten as part of a main meal".[6][7]Falling outside these definitions are edible fungi (such asedible mushrooms) andedible seaweedwhich, although not parts ofplants,are often treated as vegetables.[8]

An arrangement of fruits commonly thought of as culinary vegetables, includingcorn (maize),tomatoes,and varioussquash

In the latter-mentioned definition of "vegetable", which is used in everyday language, the words "fruit" and "vegetable" are mutually exclusive. "Fruit" has a precisebotanicalmeaning, being a part that developed from theovaryof aflowering plant.This is considerably different from the word's culinary meaning. Whilepeaches,plums,andorangesare "fruit" in both senses, many items commonly called "vegetables", such aseggplants,bell peppers,andtomatoes,are botanically fruits. Thequestion of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetablefound its way into theUnited States Supreme Courtin 1893. The court ruled unanimously inNix v. Heddenthat a tomato is correctly identified as, and thus taxed as, a vegetable, for the purposes of theTariff of 1883on imported produce. The court did acknowledge, however, that, botanically speaking, a tomato is a fruit.[9]

History

Before the advent ofagriculture,humans werehunter-gatherers.They foraged for edible fruit, nuts, stems, leaves,corms,and tubers andhuntedanimals for food.[10]Forest gardeningin a tropical jungle clearing is thought to be the first example of agriculture; useful plant species were identified and encouraged to grow while undesirable species were removed. Plant breeding through the selection of strains with desirable traits such as large fruit and vigorous growth soon followed.[11]While the first evidence for the domestication of grasses such as wheat and barley has been found in theFertile Crescentin the Middle East, it is likely that various peoples around the world started growing crops in the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC.[12]Subsistence agriculturecontinues to this day, with many rural farmers in Africa, Asia, South America, and elsewhere using their plots of land to produce enough food for their families, while any surplus produce is used for exchange for other goods.[13]

Throughout recorded history, the rich have been able to afford a varied diet including meat, vegetables and fruit, but for poor people, meat was a luxury and the food they ate was very dull, typically comprising mainly somestapleproduct made from rice, rye, barley, wheat, millet or maize. The addition of vegetable matter provided some variety to the diet. The staple diet of theAztecsin Central America wasmaizeand they cultivatedtomatoes,avocados,beans,peppers,pumpkins,squashes,peanuts,andamaranthseeds to supplement theirtortillasandporridge.In Peru, theIncassubsisted on maize in the lowlands and potatoes at higher altitudes. They also used seeds fromquinoa,supplementing their diet with peppers, tomatoes, and avocados.[14]

InAncient China,rice was the staple crop in the south and wheat in the north, the latter made intodumplings,noodles,andpancakes.Vegetables used to accompany these includedyams,soybeans,broad beans,turnips,spring onions,andgarlic.The diet of the ancient Egyptians was based onbread,often contaminated with sand which wore away their teeth. Meat was a luxury but fish was more plentiful. These were accompanied by a range of vegetables including marrows, broad beans, lentils, onions, leeks, garlic, radishes, and lettuces.[14]

The mainstay of theAncient Greekdiet was bread, and this was accompanied by goat's cheese, olives, figs, fish, and occasionally meat. The vegetables grown included onions, garlic, cabbages, melons, and lentils.[15]InAncient Rome,a thick porridge was made ofemmer wheator beans, accompanied by green vegetables but little meat, and fish was not esteemed. The Romans grew broad beans, peas, onions and turnips and ate the leaves ofbeetsrather than their roots.[16]

Some common vegetables

Some common vegetables
Image Species Parts used Origin Cultivars World production
(×106tons, 2018)[17]
Brassica oleracea leaves,axillary buds,stems, flower heads Europe cabbage,Brussels sprouts,cauliflower,broccoli,kale,kohlrabi,
red cabbage,Savoy cabbage,Chinese broccoli,collard greens 		69.4
Brassica rapa root, leaves Asia turnip,Chinese cabbage,napa cabbage,bok choy
Raphanus sativus root, leaves, seed pods, seed oil, sprouting Southeastern Asia radish,daikon,seedpod varieties
Daucus carota root, leaves, stems Persia carrot 40.0[n 1]
Pastinaca sativa root Eurasia parsnip
Beta vulgaris root, leaves Europe and Near East beetroot,sea beet,Swiss chard,sugar beet
Lactuca sativa leaves, stems, seed oil Egypt lettuce,celtuce 27.2
Phaseolus vulgaris
Phaseolus coccineus
Phaseolus lunatus		 pods, seeds Central and South America green bean,French bean,runner bean,haricot bean,Lima bean 55.1[n 2]
Vicia faba pods, seeds Mediterranean and Middle East broad bean 4.9
Pisum sativum pods, seeds, sprouts Mediterranean and Middle East pea,snap pea,snow pea,split pea 34.7[n 2]
Solanum tuberosum tubers South America potato 368.1
Solanum melongena fruits South and East Asia eggplant(aubergine) 54.0
Solanum lycopersicum fruits South America tomato,seelist of tomato cultivars 182.2
Cucumis sativus fruits Southern Asia cucumber,seelist of cucumber varieties 75.2
Cucurbita spp. fruits, flowers Mesoamerica pumpkin,squash,marrow,zucchini(courgette),gourd 27.6
Allium cepa bulbs, leaves Asia onion,spring onion,scallion,shallot,seelist of onion cultivars 102.2[n 2]
Allium sativum bulbs Asia garlic 28.5
Allium ampeloprasum leaf sheaths Europe and Middle East leek,elephant garlic 2.2
Capsicum annuum fruits North and South America pepper,bell pepper,sweet pepper 40.9[n 2]
Spinacia oleracea leaves Central and southwestern Asia spinach 26.3
Dioscorea spp. tubers Tropical Africa yam 72.6
Ipomoea batatas tubers, leaves, shoots Central and South America sweet potato,seelist of sweet potato cultivars 91.9
Manihot esculenta tubers South America cassava 277.8
  1. ^Includes both carrots and turnips.
  2. ^abcdSum of production of dry and green vegetables.

Nutrition and health

Southeast Asian-style stir-friedIpomoea aquaticain chili andsambal
Vegetables (and somefruit) for sale on a street inGuntur,India

Vegetables play an important role in human nutrition. Most are low in fat and calories but are bulky and filling.[18]They supply dietary fiber and are important sources of essential vitamins, minerals, and trace elements. Particularly important are the antioxidant vitaminsA,C,andE.When vegetables are included in the diet, there is found to be a reduction in the incidence of cancer, stroke, cardiovascular disease, and other chronic ailments.[19][20][21]Research has shown that, compared with individuals who eat less than three servings of fruits and vegetables each day, those that eat more than five servings have an approximately twenty percent lower risk of developing coronary heart disease or stroke.[22] Thenutritionalcontent of vegetables varies considerably; some contain useful amounts ofproteinthough generally they contain littlefat,[23]and varying proportions ofvitaminssuch asvitamin A,vitamin K,andvitamin B6;provitamins;dietary minerals;andcarbohydrates.

The consumption ofcrunchyand hard to chew foods, such as raw vegetables, during youth, while the bones are still growing, is needed for the human's, and other animals', jaws' proper development, and without their consumption, the jaws do not grow to their full size, thus not leaving enough room for the teeth to grow in correctly, causingcrookedandimpactedteeth.[24][25]

However, vegetables often also containtoxinsandantinutrientswhich interfere with the absorption of nutrients. These includeα-solanine,α-chaconine,[26]enzyme inhibitors(ofcholinesterase,protease,amylase,etc.),cyanideandcyanide precursors,oxalic acid,tanninsand others.[citation needed]These toxins are natural defenses, used to ward off the insects, predators and fungi that might attack the plant. Some beans containphytohaemagglutinin,and cassava roots containcyanogenic glycosideas dobamboo shoots.These toxins can be deactivated by adequate cooking. Green potatoes containglycoalkaloidsand should be avoided.[27]

Fruit and vegetables, particularly leafy vegetables, have been implicated in nearly half thegastrointestinal infectionscaused bynorovirusin the United States. These foods are commonly eaten raw and may become contaminated during their preparation by an infected food handler. Hygiene is important when handling foods to be eaten raw, and such products need to be properly cleaned, handled, and stored to limit contamination.[28]

Recommendations

Vegetable consumption per capita in 2013[29]

The USDA Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends consuming five to nine servings of fruit and vegetables daily.[30]The total amount consumed will vary according to age and gender, and is determined based upon the standard portion sizes typically consumed, as well as general nutritional content. Potatoes are not included in the count as they are mainly providers of starch. For most vegetables and vegetable juices, one serving is half of a cup and can be eaten raw or cooked. For leafy greens, such aslettuceandspinach,a single serving is typically a full cup.[31]A variety of products should be chosen as no single fruit or vegetable provides all the nutrients needed for health.[22]

International dietary guidelines are similar to the ones established by the USDA.Japan,for example, recommends the consumption of five to six servings of vegetables daily.[32]French recommendations provide similar guidelines and set the daily goal at five servings.[33]In India, the daily recommendation for adults is 275 grams (9.7 oz) of vegetables per day.[19]

Production

Cultivation

Further information:Kitchen gardenandVegetable farming
Growing vegetables in South Africa
Fresh vegetables from garden inCroatia

Vegetables have been part of the human diet fromtime immemorial.Some are staple foods but most are accessory foodstuffs, adding variety to meals with their unique flavors and at the same time, adding nutrients necessary for health. Some vegetables areperennialsbut most areannualsandbiennials,usually harvested within a year of sowing or planting. Whatever system is used for growing crops, cultivation follows a similar pattern; preparation of the soil by loosening it, removing or burying weeds, and adding organic manures or fertilisers; sowing seeds or planting young plants; tending the crop while it grows to reduce weed competition, control pests, and provide sufficient water; harvesting the crop when it is ready; sorting, storing, and marketing the crop or eating it fresh from the ground.[34]

Different soil types suit different crops, but in general in temperate climates, sandy soils dry out fast but warm up quickly in the spring and are suitable for early crops, while heavy clays retain moisture better and are more suitable for late season crops. The growing season can be lengthened by the use offleece,cloches,plastic mulch,polytunnels,andgreenhouses.[34]In hotter regions, the production of vegetables is constrained by the climate, especially the pattern of rainfall, while in temperate zones, it is constrained by the temperature and day length.[35]

Weeding cabbages in Colorado, US

On a domestic scale, the spade, fork, and hoe are the tools of choice while on commercial farms a range of mechanical equipment is available. Besides tractors, these includeploughs,harrows,drills,transplanters,cultivators,irrigationequipment, andharvesters.New techniques are changing the cultivation procedures involved in growing vegetables with computer monitoring systems,GPSlocators, and self-steer programs for driverless machines giving economic benefits.[35]

Harvesting

Harvesting beetroot in the United Kingdom

When a vegetable is harvested, it is cut off from its source of water and nourishment. It continues to transpire and loses moisture as it does so, a process most noticeable in the wilting of green leafy crops. Harvesting root vegetables when they are fully mature improves their storage life, but alternatively, these root crops can be left in the ground and harvested over an extended period. The harvesting process should seek to minimise damage and bruising to the crop. Onions and garlic can be dried for a few days in the field and root crops such as potatoes benefit from a short maturation period in warm, moist surroundings, during which time wounds heal and the skin thickens up and hardens. Before marketing or storage, grading needs to be done to remove damaged goods and select produce according to its quality, size, ripeness, and color.[36]

Storage

All vegetables benefit from proper post harvest care. A large proportion of vegetables and perishable foods are lost after harvest during the storage period. These losses may be as high as thirty to fifty percent in developing countries where adequate cold storage facilities are not available. The main causes of loss include spoilage caused by moisture, moulds, micro-organisms, and vermin.[37]

Temporary storage of potatoes in the Netherlands

Storage can be short-term or long-term. Most vegetables are perishable and short-term storage for a few days provides flexibility in marketing. During storage, leafy vegetables losemoisture,and thevitamin Cin them degrades rapidly. A few products such as potatoes and onions have better keeping qualities and can be sold when higher prices may be available, and by extending the marketing season, a greater total volume of crop can be sold. If refrigerated storage is not available, the priority for most crops is to store high-quality produce, to maintain a high humidity level, and to keep the produce in the shade.[36]

Proper post-harvest storage aimed at extending and ensuring shelf life is best effected by efficientcold chainapplication.[38]Cold storage is particularly useful for vegetables such as cauliflower, eggplant, lettuce, radish, spinach, potatoes, and tomatoes, the optimum temperature depending on the type of produce. There are temperature-controlling technologies that do not require the use of electricity such as evaporative cooling.[6]Storage of fruit and vegetables in controlled atmospheres with high levels of carbon dioxide or high oxygen levels can inhibit microbial growth and extend storage life.[39]

The irradiation of vegetables and other agricultural produce byionizing radiationcan be used to preserve it from both microbial infection and insect damage, as well as from physical deterioration. It can extend the storage life of food without noticeably changing its properties.[40]

Preservation

The objective of preserving vegetables is to extend their availability for consumption or marketing purposes. The aim is to harvest the food at its maximum state of palatability and nutritional value, and preserve these qualities for an extended period. The main causes of deterioration in vegetables after they are gathered are the actions of naturally-occurringenzymesand the spoilage caused bymicro-organisms.[41]Canning and freezing are the most commonly used techniques, and vegetables preserved by these methods are generally similar in nutritional value to comparable fresh products with regards tocarotenoids,vitamin E,minerals.anddietary fiber.[42]

Bean field and canning factory, New Jersey, US

Canningis a process during which the enzymes in vegetables are deactivated and the micro-organisms present killed by heat. The sealed can excludes air from the foodstuff to prevent subsequent deterioration. The lowest necessary heat and the minimum processing time are used in order to prevent the mechanical breakdown of the product and to preserve the flavor as far as is possible. The can is then able to be stored at ambient temperatures for a long period.[41]

Freezingvegetables and maintaining their temperature at below −10 °C (14 °F) will prevent their spoilage for a short period, whereas a temperature of −18 °C (0 °F) is required for longer-term storage. The enzyme action will merely be inhibited, andblanchingof suitably sized prepared vegetables before freezing mitigates this and prevents off-flavors developing. Not all micro-organisms will be killed at these temperatures and after thawing the vegetables should be used promptly because otherwise, any microbes present may proliferate.[43]

Sun-drying tomatoes in Greece

Traditionally,sun dryinghas been used for some products such as tomatoes, mushrooms, and beans, spreading the produce on racks and turning the crop at intervals. This method suffers from several disadvantages including lack of control over drying rates, spoilage when drying is slow, contamination by dirt, wetting by rain, and attack by rodents, birds, and insects. These disadvantages can be alleviated by usingsolar powereddriers.[37]The dried produce must be prevented from reabsorbing moisture during storage.[41]

High levels of bothsugarandsaltcan preserve food by preventing micro-organisms from growing. Green beans can be salted by layering the pods with salt, but this method of preservation is unsuited to most vegetables. Marrows, beetroot, carrot, and some other vegetables can be boiled with sugar to create jams.[41]Vinegaris widely used infood preservation;a sufficient concentration ofacetic acidprevents the development of destructive micro-organisms, a fact made use of in the preparation ofpickles,chutneysand relishes.[41]Fermentationis another method of preserving vegetables for later use.Sauerkrautis made from chopped cabbage and relies onlactic acidbacteria which produce compounds that are inhibitory to the growth of other micro-organisms.[6]

Top producers

See also:List of countries by vegetable production
Vegetable shop in India
Vegetables in asupermarketin the United States

In 2010, China was the largest vegetable producing nation, with over half the world's production. India, the United States, Turkey, Iran, and Egypt were the next largest producers. China had the highest area of land devoted to vegetable production, while the highest average yields were obtained in Spain and the Republic of Korea.[44]

Country Area cultivated
thousand hectares
(2,500 acres)		 Yield
thousand kg/ha
(890 lb/acre)		 Production
thousand tonnes
(1,100short tons)
China 23,458 230 539,993
India 7,256 138 100,045
United States 1,120 318 35,609
Turkey 1,090 238 25,901
Iran 767 261 19,995
Egypt 755 251 19,487
Italy 537 265 14,201
Russia 759 175 13,283
Spain 348 364 12,679
Mexico 681 184 12,515
Nigeria 1844 64 11,830
Brazil 500 225 11,233
Japan 407 264 10,746
Indonesia 1082 90 9,780
South Korea 268 364 9,757
Vietnam 818 110 8,976
Ukraine 551 162 8,911
Uzbekistan 220 342 7,529
Philippines 718 88 6,299
France 245 227 5,572
Total world 55,598 188 1,044,380

Standards

TheInternational Organization for Standardization(ISO) sets international standards to ensure that products and services are safe, reliable, and of good quality. There are a number of ISO standards regarding fruits and vegetables.[45]ISO 1991-1:1982 lists the botanical names of sixty-one species of plants used as vegetables along with the common names of the vegetables in English, French, and Russian.[46]ISO 67.080.20 covers the storage and transport of vegetables and their derived products.[47]

See also

References

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