Vibrio
Vibriois agenusofGram-negative bacteria,possessing a curved-rod (comma) shape,[1][2][3][4]several species of which can causefoodborne infectionor soft-tissue infection calledVibriosis.Infection is commonly associated with eating undercooked seafood. Being highly salt tolerant and unable to survive in freshwater,Vibriospp. are commonly found in varioussalt waterenvironments.Vibriospp. arefacultative anaerobesthat test positive foroxidaseand do not formspores.[4][5]All members of the genus aremotile.They are able to have polar or lateralflagellumwith or without sheaths.[4][6]Vibriospecies typically possess twochromosomes,which is unusual for bacteria.[7][8]Each chromosome has a distinct and independentorigin of replication,[9]and are conserved together over time in the genus.[10]Recent phylogenies have been constructed based on a suite of genes (multilocussequence analysis).[1]
O. F. Müller(1773, 1786) described eight species of the genusVibrio(included inInfusoria), three of which were spirilliforms.[11]Some of the other species are today assigned to eukaryote taxa, e.g., to theeuglenoidPeranemaor to thediatomBacillaria.However,VibrioMüller, 1773 became regarded as the name of a zoological genus, and the name of the bacterial genus becameVibrioPacini, 1854.[12]Filippo Paciniisolated micro-organisms he called "vibrions"from cholera patients in 1854, because of their motility.[13]InLatin"vibrio" means "to quiver".[14]
Biochemical characteristics ofVibriospp.
[edit]The genusVibriocontains a large number of species, and these vary somewhat in their biochemical characteristics. Colony, morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of the genusVibrioare shown in the Table below.[4]
| Test type | Test | Group-1 | Group-2 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Colony characters | Size | Medium | Medium |
| Type | Round | Round | |
| Color | Whitish | Whitish | |
| Shape | Convex | Convex | |
| Morphological characters | Shape | Curved-rod | Curved-rod |
| Physiological characters | Motility | + | + |
| Growth at 6.5% NaCl | + | + | |
| Biochemical characters | Gram’s staining | – | – |
| Oxidase | + | + | |
| Catalase | + | + | |
| Oxidative-Fermentative | Fermentative | Oxidative | |
| Motility | + | + | |
| Methyl Red | + | – | |
| Voges-Proskauer | + | – | |
| Indole | – | – | |
| H2S Production | – | + | |
| Urease | – | + | |
| Nitrate reductase | – | + | |
| β-Galactosidase | + | + | |
| Hydrolysis of | Gelatin | + | + |
| Aesculin | – | + | |
| Casein | – | + | |
| Tween 40 | + | + | |
| Tween 60 | + | + | |
| Tween 80 | + | + | |
| Acid production from | Glycerol | + | + |
| Galactose | – | + | |
| D-Glucose | + | + | |
| D-Fructose | + | V | |
| D-Mannose | + | V | |
| Mannitol | + | V | |
| N-Acetylglucosamine | + | + | |
| Amygdalin | + | – | |
| Maltose | + | + | |
| D-Melibiose | – | – | |
| D-Trehalose | + | – | |
| Glycogen | + | + | |
| D-Turanose | + | + |
Note: Group-1:Vibrio alginolyticus;Group-2:Vibrio natriegens, Vibrio pelagius, Vibrio azureus;+ = Positive; – =Negative; V =Variable (+/–)
Pathogenic strains
[edit]
Several species ofVibrioarepathogens.[15]Most disease-causing strains are associated withgastroenteritis,but can also infect open wounds and causesepsis.[16]They can be carried by numerous marine animals, such as crabs or prawns, and have been known to cause fatal infections in humans after exposure.[17]Risk of clinical disease and death increases with certain factors, such as uncontrolled diabetes,elevated iron levels(cirrhosis,sickle cell disease,hemochromatosis), and cancer or other immunocompromised states. PathogenicVibriospecies includeV. cholerae(the causative agent ofcholera),V. parahaemolyticus,andV. vulnificus.V. choleraeis generally transmitted bycontaminated water.[3]PathogenicVibriospecies can cause foodborne illness (infection), usually associated with eating undercooked seafood.[18]When ingestedVibriobacteria can primarily result in watery diarrhea along with other secondary symptoms.[19]The pathogenic features can be linked toquorum sensing,where bacteria are able to express their virulence factor via their signaling molecules.[20]
V. vulnificusoutbreaks commonly occur in warm climates and small, generally lethal, outbreaks occur regularly. An outbreak occurred in New Orleans afterHurricane Katrina,[21]and several lethal cases occur most years in Florida.[22]As of 2013 in the United States,Vibrioinfections as a whole were up 43% when compared with the rates observed in 2006–2008.V. vulnificus,the most severe strain, has not increased. FoodborneVibrioinfections are most often associated with eating rawshellfish.[23]
V. parahaemolyticusis also associated with the Kanagawa phenomenon, in which strains isolated from humanhosts(clinical isolates) arehemolyticonblood agar plates,while those isolated from nonhuman sources are not hemolytic.[24]
ManyVibriospecies are alsozoonotic.They cause disease in fish and shellfish, and are common causes of mortality among domestic marine life.
Diagnosis
[edit]Cholera
[edit]A common sign ofVibrioinfection ischolera.Cholera primarily presents with rapid water loss by watery diarrhea. Other symptoms include vomiting and muscle cramps.[25]Water loss can lead to dehydration which can be mild to moderate to severe. Moderate to severe dehydration requires immediate treatment.V. choleraeis the most common pathogen that causes cholera. The gold standard for detecting cholera is through cultures of stool samples or rectal swabs. Identification is then done through microscopy or by agglutination of antibodies.[25]Cultures are done in thiosulfate citrate bile-salts sucrose agar.V choleraewill form yellow colonies.[26]
Vibriosis
[edit]Vibriosis is a sign of a more severeVibrioinfection. Common causes of vibriosis include consumption of raw or undercooked seafood, primarily oysters, or wound exposure to sea water. The majority ofV. parahaemolyticusinfections can be self-limiting and symptoms include diarrhea, nausea, headaches, fever and chills.V. vulnificuscan lead to a more serious disease, particularly in wound infection which can turn intonecrotizing fasciitis.V. parahaemolyticus is the most common pathogen in vibriosis, howeverV. vulnificusis more common in people who have certain risk factors like older age, liver disease or diabetes mellitus. Like all vibrio diagnosis, vibriosis can also be determined in stool cultures.V. parahaemolyticusandV. vulnificuswill form green colonies.[26]
Treatment
[edit] |
Medical care depends on the clinical presentation and the presence of underlying medical conditions.
Vibriogastroenteritis
[edit]BecauseVibriogastroenteritis is self-limited in most patients, no specific medical therapy is required.[27]Patients who cannot tolerate oral fluid replacement may require intravenous fluid therapy.
Although mostVibriospecies are sensitive to antibiotics, such asdoxycyclineorciprofloxacin,antibiotic therapy does not shorten the course of the illness or the duration of pathogen excretion. However, if the patient is ill and has a high fever or an underlying medical condition, oral antibiotic therapy with doxycycline or ciprofloxacin can be initiated.[27]
Non-choleraVibrioinfections
[edit]Patients with non-choleraVibriowound infection or sepsis are much more ill and frequently have other medical conditions. Medical therapy consists of:
- Prompt initiation of effective antibiotic therapy (doxycycline or a quinolone)
- Intensive medical therapy with aggressive fluid replacement and vasopressors for hypotension and septic shock to correct acid-base and electrolytes abnormalities that may be associated with severe sepsis
- Earlyfasciotomywithin 24 hours after development of clinical symptoms can be life-saving in patients withnecrotizing fasciitis.
- Earlydebridementof the infected wound has an important role in successful therapy and is especially indicated to avoid amputation of fingers, toes, or limbs.
- Expeditious and serial surgical evaluation and intervention are required because patients may deteriorate rapidly, especially those with necrotizing fasciitis orcompartment syndrome.
- Reconstructive surgery, such as skin grafts, are used in the recovery phase.
Prevention
[edit]Cholera
[edit]The most effective method to prevent cholera is the improvement of water and food safety. This includes the sanitation of water, proper preparation of food and community awareness of outbreaks. Prevention has been most effective in countries where cholera is endemic.
Another method ischolera vaccines.Examples of cholera vaccines include Dukoral and Vaxchora.[28]
Vibriosis
[edit]Prevention of vibriosis is mostly effective in food processing. Food items, mostly seafood, that commonly containvibrioorganisms are regularly controlled. The water that seafood is fished or farmed from is analyzed to determine microorganism content. Food processing methods like pasteurization and high pressure are used to eliminate microorganisms and pathogens.[26]
Other strains
[edit]V. harveyiis a pathogen of several aquatic animals, and is notable as a cause of luminous vibriosis in shrimp (prawns).[29]Aliivibrio fischeri(orV. fischeri) is known for its mutualistic symbiosis with the Hawaiianbobtail squid,which is dependent on microbial luminescence.[30]
Flagella
[edit]The "typical", early-discoveredVibriospecies, such asV. cholerae,have a single polarflagellum(monotrichous) with sheath. Some species, such asV. parahaemolyticusandV. alginolyticus,have both a single polar flagellum with sheath and thin flagella projecting in all directions (peritrichous), and the other species, such asV. fischeri,have tufts of polar flagella with sheath (lophotrichous).[31]
Structure
[edit]Typical bacterial flagellum structure contains three components: the basal body, the hook and the filament. Like typical bacteria,Vibriospp, have these three components, but with increased complexity in the basal body. In addition,Vibriospp. use five or six distinct flagellum subunits to construct the flagellar filament, rather than the single flagellin found in many other bacteria. InVibriospp, most have a single flagellum located on one pole of the bacterium, although some species have additional flagella in peritrichous or lophotrichous arrangements. Another difference is that the gradient used to power the flagellar motor is sodium driven rather than proton driven; this creates greater torque, andVibrioflagella have been shown to rotate over five times faster than the H+-driven flagella ofE. coli.The flagellum is also surrounded by a sheath extending from the membrane. The purpose of this sheath has yet to be determined.[32]
Effect on Virulence
[edit]Motility is very important forVibriospp for infection. Research has shown that a variety ofVibriosmutants that are defective in flagella synthesis or non-motile are defective in infection. Loss of motility inVibriohas shown impaired colonization and adherence to host's intestines.[32]
Natural transformation
[edit]Natural transformationis a common bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer that employs numerous bacterial gene products.[33][34]For a recipient bacterium to bind, take up, and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must becomecompetent,that is, enter a special physiologic state. The DNA-uptake process of naturally competentV. choleraeinvolves an extended competence-induced pilus and a DNA-binding protein that acts as a ratchet and reels DNA into the periplasm.[35]Natural transformation has also been described forV. fischeri,[36]V. vulnificus[37]andV. parahaemolyticus.[38]
Small RNA
[edit]V. choleraehas been used in discoveries of manybacterial small RNAs.Using sRNA-Seq and Northern blot candidate sRNAs were identified and characterised asIGR-sRNA (intragenic region), AS-sRNAs (transcribed from the antisense strand of theopen reading frame(ORF) and ORF-derived.[39]One of the candidates from this study, IGR 7, was shown to be involved in carbon metabolism and later renamedMtlS RNA.Other sRNAs identified inV. choleraethrough genetic screens and computational methods includeQrr RNA,Vibrio regulatory RNA of OmpA,MiX sRNA,Vibrio cholerae ToxT activated RNAs,foR RNA,andVqmR sRNA.
See also
[edit]References
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External links
[edit]- Vibriogenomes and related information atPATRIC,a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded byNIAID
- Bacteriological Analytical Manual Online