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Volga Germans

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Volga Germans
Wolgadeutsche
Flag of Volga Germans
Total population
594,138
Regions with significant populations
Russia 394,138[1]
Kazakhstan200,000[2]
Languages
German,Russian,Kazakh
Religion
Lutheran,Roman Catholicism,Mennonite,Orthodoxy
Related ethnic groups
Black Sea Germans,Don Cossacks

TheVolga Germans(German:Wolgadeutsche,pronounced[ˈvɔlɡaˌdɔɪ̯t͡ʃə]ⓘ;Russian:поволжские немцы,romanized:povolzhskiye nemtsy) are ethnicGermanswho settled and historically lived along theVolga Riverin the region of southeasternEuropean RussiaaroundSaratovand close toUkrainenearer to the south.

Recruited as immigrants to Russia in the 18th century, they were allowed to maintain their German culture, language, traditions and churches (Lutheran, Reformed, Catholics,MoraviansandMennonites). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, many Volga Germans emigrated to theUnited States,Canada,Brazil,andArgentina.

After theOctober Revolution,theVolga German ASSRwas established as an autonomous republic of theRussian SFSR.DuringWorld War II,the republic was abolished by the Soviet government and the Volga Germans wereforcibly expelledto a number of areas in the hinterlands of theSoviet Union.Following thedissolution of the Soviet Unionin 1991, many Volga Germans emigrated toGermany.

History

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Invitation to Russia

[edit]
Catherine the Great.
Volga German cities and settlements.

In 1762,Catherine II,born aGermanprincess and a native ofStettin,Pomerania, deposed her husbandPeter III,born aGermanprince inKiel,and took theRussian imperialthrone. Following the lead ofMaria Theresa,Empress of Austria and Hungary, invitingGermans to settle on the Danubein theBalkans,Catherine the Great published manifestos in 1762 and 1763 inviting non-Jewish Europeans[3]to immigrate and become Russian subjects and farm Russian lands while maintaining their language and culture. Although the first received little response, the second improved the benefits offered and was more successful in attracting colonists. People in other countries such asFranceandEnglandwere more inclined to migrate to the colonies in the Americas. Other countries, such asAustria,forbade emigration.

Those who went to Russia had special rights under the terms of the manifesto. Some, such as being exempt from military service, were revoked in the latter part of the 19th century when the government needed more conscripts for the Russian army. ThePlautdietsch-speakingMennonitecommunities were opposed to military service because of their pacifist beliefs, so many Mennonites emigrated to theAmericasinstead.

In the late 18th century the nomadicKazakhstook advantage ofPugachev's Rebellion,which was centred on the Volga area, to raid Volga German settlements.[4]

19th century

[edit]

At the end of the 19th century, the Russian empire began to apply an aggressive policy ofRussification.Although they had been promised a degree of relative autonomy (including being exempt fromconscription) when they settled in the Russian empire, the Russian monarchy gradually eroded their specific rights as time went on. The Germans began to suffer a considerable loss of autonomy. Conscription was eventually reinstated. That was not wanted and was especially harmful to theMennonites,who practice pacifism. Throughout the 19th century, pressure increased from the Russian government to culturally assimilate. Many Germans from Russia found it necessary to emigrate to avoid conscription and preserve their culture. This caused some Germans to organize themselves and send emissaries to some countries in the Americas in order to assess potential settlement destinations. The chosen destinations were Canada, United States, Brazil and Argentina. Most Volga Germans who settled in Latin America wereCatholic.Many Catholic Volga Germans chose South America as their new homeland because the nations shared their religion.

North America

[edit]
Main article:Germans from Russia
Further information:Ellis County, Kansas § English and Russian-German immigrants
Temporary quarters for Volga Germans in central Kansas, 1875.
Volga German pioneer family commemorative statue inVictoria, Kansasby Pete Felten, 1976

Germans from Russia were the most traditional of German-speaking arrivals toNorth America.In the United States, many settled primarily inthe Dakotas,Kansas,andNebraskaby 1900. The south-central part ofNorth Dakotawas known as "the German-Russian triangle" (that includes descendants ofBlack Sea Germans). A smaller number moved farther west, finding employment as ranchers andcowboys.They also settled inOhio,Iowa,Michigan,Minnesota,Oregon(especially inPortland[5]),Washington,Wisconsin,andFresno Countyin California'sCentral Valley.They often succeeded indryland farming,which they had practiced in Russia. Many of the immigrants who arrived between 1870 and 1912 spent a period doing farm labor, especially in northeasternColoradoand inMontanaalong the lowerYellowstone Riverinsugar beetfields. Colonies kept in touch with each other through newspapers, especiallyDer Staats Anzeiger,based in North Dakota. By author Richard Sallet's count, there were 118,493 descendants of Volga Germans of the first and second generation living in the United States according to the1920 United States census.[6]

In Canada, the largest groups settled mainly in the area of theGreat Plains:Alberta,Manitoba,andSaskatchewan.In Saskatchewan, many settled in the predominantly German settlement ofSt. Joseph's Colony,including the town ofLuseland.

Flags of Argentina,Buenos Aires Provinceand Germany in front of St. Joseph Catholic Church inSan José,Coronel Suárez Partido,Argentina(Volga German colony).

South America

[edit]

Germans from Russia also settled inArgentina(seeGerman Argentines) andBrazil(seeGerman Brazilians). Additionally, many of the Volga Germans who had previously settled in Brazil later also went to settle in Argentina due to the difficulties of planting wheat in Brazil, among other reasons.

In Argentina, Volga Germans have founded many colonies or villages. For example, around the city ofCoronel Suárezin the South ofBuenos Aires Province,around the city ofCrespoinEntre Ríos Province,along the East ofLa Pampa Province,etc. Every year, the community of Volga German descendants holds different celebrations in the country in which they keep their traditions alive. For example, theKerb(festival to honour thepatron saintof a colony),[7]theKreppelfest,[8]theStrudelfest,[9]theFüllselfest,[10]theSchlachtfest[11](also promoted by its Spanish nameFiesta de la Carneada), theFiesta del Pirok(Bierockfestival),[12]etc.

Today, 8% of the Argentine population or 3.5 million Argentines claim German ancestry. Of those, more than 2.5 million claim Volga German descent,[13]making them the majority of those having German ancestry in the country, and accounting for 5.7% of the total Argentine population. Descendants of Volga Germans outnumber descendants of Germans from Germany itself, who number one million in Argentina (2.3% of the population).

20th century

[edit]
Ethnic Germans from the Volga region at a refugee camp inSchneidemühl,Germany, early 1920s.

Following theRussian Revolution,theVolga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic(German:Autonome Sozialistische Sowjet-Republik der Wolga-Deutschen;Russian:АССР Немцев Поволжья) was established in 1924, and it lasted until 1941. Its capital wasEngels,known asPokrovsk(Kosakenstadtin German) before 1931.

Soviet deportation

[edit]

The deportation of the Volga Germans was the Sovietforced transferof the whole of the Volga German population from theVolga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist RepublictoGulagcampslocated inSiberia,Kazakhstanand even in arctic locations. The Soviets, bearing in mind the collaboration of theSudeten Germansof Czechoslovakia with Nazi Germany, decided as a precautionary measure to transfer the Volga German population.[14]

These deportations, which also included the rest of the ethnic Germans from Russia, had been applied for several years beforeWorld War IIand became particularly exhaustive on September 3, 1941, during the war.[15][16][17][18]

Of all the ethnic German communities in the Soviet Union, the Volga Germans represented the single largest group expelled from their historical homeland. All their possessions were confiscated and they were deported only because of their ethnicity. Shortly after the German invasion, on June 22, 1941, Stalin sentBeriaandMolotovto the Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to determine a course of action for its German inhabitants, as a way of carrying out collective revenge on the civilian population. On return, they recommended the deportation of the entire German population. Consequently, theCentral Committee of the Communist Partyissued a resolution on August 12, calling for the expulsion of the entire ethnic German population. With this authority, Beria on August 27 issued an order entitled "On Measures for Conducting the Operation of Resettling the Germans from the Volga German Republic, Saratov, and Stalingrad Oblasts", assigning the deputy head of theNKVD,(secret police)Ivan Serov,to command this operation. He also allocated NKVD and Red Army troops to carry out the transfer. The Germans were to be sent to various oblasts (provinces) in Siberia, Kazakhstan and others, beginning on September 3, and ending on September 20, 1941. On September 7, 1941, the Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was officially abolished, clearly showing that the Soviets considered the expulsion of the Germans final.[19][20][21]

On August 28, 1941, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR approved and published a decree, which was the only official decree ever published by the Soviet Union concerning the deportation and exile of the German Russian community. The Soviet regime stated that the evacuation was a preventive measure so that the German population would not be misled into collaborating with the German Army rather than a punitive measure, and they did not reveal the sentence to the forced labor camps. Stalin allegedly gave the following "secret" order to the NKVD, produced inGerman controlled Latviaon September 20, 1941:

Aerial view of theVorkutlag,one of the GULAG forced labor camps where many Germans from Russia were enslaved and perished.

"After the house search, tell everyone who is scheduled to be deported that, according to the government's decision, they are being sent to other regions of the USSR. Transport the entire family in one car until the train station, but at the station, heads of families must be loaded into a separate train car prepared especially for them. Their families are deported for special settlements in the far away regions of the Union. [Family members] must not know about the forthcoming separation from the head of the family."[22]

This above document may be a fabrication, as Latvia was under German occupation at that time. Nevertheless, the instructions were followed by the NKVD troops who directed the deportation.[23]

The reason for separating the men is that they were all destined for forced labor camps,Trudarmee(NKVD labor army). The deported and enslaved Germans coined this phrase, whereas Soviet documents only referred to "labor obligations" or "labor regulations." Men between the ages of 15 and 55 and, later, women between the ages of 16 and 45 were forced to do labor in the forests and mines of Siberia and Central Asia under conditions similar to that prevalent in the Gulag forced labor camps, while other Germans were directly deported to Gulag forced labor camps.[23]

The expulsion of the Volga Germans finished on schedule at the end of September 1941. According to the Soviet Union, the total number sent to forced internal exile was about 950,000. However, the actual estimated number of victims is much higher. It took 151 train convoys to accomplish the first transfers of the Volga German population, an astounding figure when one considers that the Soviet Union was heavily engaged fighting the advancing German army, and all railway stock was required to bring soldiers to the front. This operation also involved 1,550 NKVD and 3,250 police agents assisted by 12,150 soldiers of the Red Army.[24]

In 1941, after the Nazi invasion, theNKVD(viaPrikazNo. 35105) banned ethnic Germans from serving in the Soviet military. They sent tens of thousands of these soldiers to theTrudarmee.[25][page needed]

In 1942, nearly all the able-bodied German population was conscripted to theNKVD labor columnsor had been sent to the Gulag forced labor camps. According to anti-communist Stanford historianRobert Conquest,during the first stage, about one-third (estimated at 1.5 million)[26]did not survive the camps.[27]The conditions imposed on ethnic Germans by the regime continued to be inhumane.[28][29][30][31]The deportation and subsequent deaths to ethnic minorities during Stalin's rule is referred to as anethnic cleansing.Some historians refer to these acts as agenocide,though there is debate whether or not the destruction of non-Russians was intentional.[32][33][34][35]Ethnically German minorities received little empathy for mass expulsions due to their German ethnicity and assumed relation to theNazi regime.[36]There is debate among sociologists and historians whether ethnic cleansing is genocide.[37][38][39]

Recent years

[edit]

The Volga Germans never returned to the Volga region in their old numbers. They were not allowed to settle in the area for decades. After World War II, many survivors remained in theUral Mountains,Siberia,Kazakhstan(1.4% of today's Kazakh population are recognized as Germans - around 200,000),Kyrgyzstan,andUzbekistan(about 16,000 or 0.064%).[2]Decades after the war, some talked about resettling where the German Autonomous Republic used to be. But all their properties had been occupied by Russian communists. They met opposition from the new population there and did not persevere.

A proposal in June 1979 called for a new German Autonomous Republic within Kazakhstan, with a capital inErmentau.The proposal was aimed at addressing the living conditions of the displaced Volga Germans. At the time, around 936,000 ethnic Germans were living in Kazakhstan, as the republic's third-largest ethnic group. On June 16, 1979, demonstrators in Tselinograd (Astana) protested this proposal. Fearing a negative reaction among the majorityKazakhsand calls for autonomy among localUyghurs,the ruling Communist Party scrapped the proposal for ethnic German autonomy within Kazakhstan.

Since the late 1980s and the fall of theSoviet Union,some ethnic Germans have returned in small numbers toEngels,but many more emigrated permanently to Germany. They took advantage of the Germanlaw of return,apolicy that grants citizenshipto all those who can prove to be a refugee or expellee of German ethnic origin or as the spouse or descendant of such a person.

Since thecollapse of the Soviet Unionin 1991 and the independence of the Baltic states, some Russian ethnic Germans began to return to the area of theKaliningrad Oblast(formerly part ofEast Prussia), especially Volga Germans from other parts of Russia and Kazakhstan, as well as to the Volga Germans' old territory in southern Russia nearVolgograd.This tempo increased after Germany stopped granting the free right of return to ethnic Germans from the former Soviet Union.

Notable people of Volga German descent

[edit]
Andre Geim, 2010Nobel laureate in Physics.
Eduard Rosselwas the governor (1995–2009) ofSverdlovsk Oblast,Russia.

Language

[edit]

The greatest number of Volga Germans emigrated fromHesseand thePalatinate,and spokeHessianandPalatineRhine Franconian dialects[62][63]to which the colonists from other regions, and even from other countries like Sweden, assimilated.[64]SomeVolga German dialectsare very similar toPennsylvania Dutch,another Palatine Rhine Franconian language; in either dialect, one could say:[62]

  • (spelled according to standard German pronunciation rules:)Mehr wolla mohl gaern in die sche gehl Kaerrich geha.
  • (in German:)Wir wollen einmal gern in die schöne gelbe Kirche gehen.
  • (in English:) We would like to go into the beautiful yellow church.

Some other common words:[62][65][66]

Volga German Standard German English
Baam(some dialects),Boum(other dialects) Baum tree
Daitsch(Deitsch) Deutsch German
Flaasch(some dialects),Fleesch(other dialects) Fleisch flesh, meat
g'sotza gesessen (that has been) sat down
ich sin,ich bin ich bin I am
Kopp Kopf head
net nicht not
seim seinem his (dative)
un und and
Gu Morzha Guten Morgen Good Morning
Vo geest Du Wohin gehst Du Where are you going
Eisch gee hamn Ich gehe heim I'm going home
Eisch gee nit Ich gehe nicht I'm not going
Fro-uh Nigh Yor Frohe Neu Yar Happy New Year!
Geest Du hamn Du bayza Boop Gehst Du heim Du böser Bub Go home you bad boy
Grautgoge, Gahdovil und Vorscht Krautkuche, Kartoffeln und Wurst Krautkuche, potatoes, and sausage

The above list only attempts to reproduce the pronunciation and does not represent how the Volga Germans wrote. The dialects of the Germans of Russia mainly presented differences in pronunciation, as occurs in the diversity of the English language. However, Volga Germans wrote and kept their records inStandard German.

Volga Germans only borrowed a few but anecdotal Russian words, likeErbus( "watermelon" from Russianарбуз"watermelon" ),[67]which they carried with them on their subsequent moves to North America[63]and Argentina.[68]

The Standard German-related variety influenced by dialects and spoken by Volgan Germans who moved to Argentina is calledParaná-Wolga-Deutsch.It is also spoken in the Brazilian state ofParanáin addition to the Argentine province ofEntre Ríos.[69][better source needed]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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  2. ^ab"Stat.kz".Stat.kz.Archived fromthe originalon 12 February 2010.Retrieved11 November2017.
  3. ^Lewis, Bernard(1999).Semites and Anti-Semites.New York:W. W. Norton & Company.p. 61.ISBN0-393-31839-7.
  4. ^Pohl, Jonathan Otto (2022).The Years of Great Silence.ibidem-Verlag. p. 43.ISBN9783838216300.
  5. ^"Volga Germans in Portland".Volgagermans.net.Retrieved11 November2017.
  6. ^"To the United States".Volgagermans.org.Retrieved6 June2022.
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  8. ^Olavarria.gov.ar
  9. ^Diarionuevodia.ar
  10. ^coronelsuarez.gob.ar
  11. ^Fiestasnacionales.org
  12. ^Fiestasycaminos.ar
  13. ^"Alemanes del Volga. Dejaron Rusia y en Entre Ríos fundaron varias aldeas donde celebran sus tradiciones".Lanacion.ar.14 December 2021.Retrieved6 June2022.
  14. ^Grey, Ian (1979).Stalin: Man of History.p. 504.
  15. ^Pohl, J. Otto (1 June 2000). "Stalin's genocide against the" Repressed Peoples "".Journal of Genocide Research.2(2): 267–293.doi:10.1080/713677598.ISSN1462-3528.S2CID59194258.
  16. ^McMeekin, Sean (2021).Stalin's war: a new history of World War II(First ed.). New York City: Basic Books.ISBN978-1541672796.
  17. ^Arnold, Klaus J.; Duffy, Eve M. (23 January 2011)."Reluctant Accomplice":246–366.doi:10.23943/princeton/9780691140421.003.0004.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  18. ^CHILDRESS, DAVID (2020).ANTARCTICA AND THE SECRET SPACE PROGRAM from wwii to the current space race.ADVENTURES UNLIMITED PR.ISBN978-1948803205.
  19. ^Pohl, J. Otto (1999).Ethnic cleansing in the USSR, 1937-1949.Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.ISBN0-313-30921-3.
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  21. ^Koch, Fred C. (1977).The Volga Germans: in Russia and the Americas, from 1763 to the present.University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.ISBN978-0-271-01933-8.
  22. ^Merten 2015,p. 167.
  23. ^abMerten 2015,p. 168.
  24. ^Merten 2015,p. 170.
  25. ^Pohl, J. Otto.Ethnic cleansing in the USSR, 1937-1949.Greenwood PublishingGroup.
  26. ^Wheatcroft, Stephen (December 1996). "The scale and nature of German and Soviet repression and mass killings, 1930–451".Europe-Asia Studies.48(8): 1319–1353.doi:10.1080/09668139608412415.
  27. ^Conquest, Robert (1970).The Nation Killers.Macmillan.pp. 59–61.
  28. ^Kalandarov, Artur (1 April 2019)."Soviet Germans and Soviets Living in Germany during the Second World War".Armstrong Undergraduate Journal of History.9(1).doi:10.20429/aujh.2019.090105.S2CID150376063.
  29. ^Bell, Wilson T. (2018).Stalin's Gulag at War: Forced Labour, Mass Death, and Soviet Victory in the Second World War.Toronto: University of Toronto Press.ISBN978-1487523091.
  30. ^Levchuk, Nataliia; Wolowyna, Oleh; Rudnytskyi, Omelian; Kovbasiuk, Alla; Kulyk, Natalia (May 2020). "Regional 1932–1933 Famine Losses: A Comparative Analysis of Ukraine and Russia".Nationalities Papers.48(3): 492–512.doi:10.1017/nps.2019.55.S2CID216306759.
  31. ^Pohl, J. Otto (April 2016). "The Persecution of Ethnic Germans in the USSR during World War II".The Russian Review.75(2): 284–303.doi:10.1111/russ.12075.
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  33. ^Martin, Terry (December 1998)."The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing".The Journal of Modern History.70(4): 813–861.doi:10.1086/235168.S2CID32917643.
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  59. ^"Nơi này là Trung Quốc, đối diện thế nhưng là Nga?! 【 nước Đức gia đình Trung Quốc Nga biên cảnh chi lữ 】".YouTube(in Chinese). 12 November 2017.Retrieved27 August2022.
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  62. ^abcFred C. Koch,The Volga Germans: In Russia and the Americas, from 1763 to the Present(1977,ISBN0271012366)
  63. ^abGermany and the Americas: O-Z(2005,ISBN1851096280)
  64. ^Koch, page 238: "even nationals like Scandinavians, Frenchmen, Italians, and Englishmen among the colonists became submerged and lost ethnically in the highly dominant Rhineland culture and dialects."
  65. ^de:Georg Dinges,Über unsere Mundarten,originally 1923 (online copy)
  66. ^Conrad Derring, Roy."The Volga German dialect and where is it now?"(PDF).
  67. ^Journal of the American Historical Society of Germans from Russia,volumes 15-16, (1992), page 46: Who could ever forget theeigemachte [sic] Erbusen?The Germans call themWassermelone.[Ed. note:Erbusprobably was borrowed from the Russianarbuz(watermelon).] For this delicacy the watermelons would be picked late in the season when they were not too ripe and would remain firm.
  68. ^Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Volkskunde der Universität Wien,volume 4 (Verlag A. Schendl), page 49: "Grün wie Schnee / Weiß wie Klee / Rot wie Blut / Schmeckt sehr gut. (Erbus,so nannten die Rußlanddeutschen dieWassermelone,Teresa Hardt,Urdinarrain) "
  69. ^"Archived copy"(PDF).linguasphere.org.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 31 December 2005.Retrieved12 January2022.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)with:
    • "52-ACB-h Auswanderungsdeutsch (notional)"
      • "52-ACB-hm wolga-deutsch"
        • "52-ACB-hmb paraná-wolga-deutsch"

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Merten, Ulrich (2015).Voices from the Gulag: The Oppression of the German Minority in the Soviet Union.Lincoln, Nebraska: American Historical Society of Germans from Russia.ISBN978-0-692-60337-6.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Koch, Fred C.The Volga Germans: in Russia and the Americas, from 1763 to the present(Penn State Press, 2010).
  • Mukhina, Irina.The Germans of the Soviet Union(Routledge, 2007).
  • Salitan, Laurie P. "Soviet Germans: A Brief History and an Introduction to Their Emigration." inPolitics and Nationality in Contemporary Soviet-Jewish Emigration, 1968–89( Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1992) pp 72–83.
  • Waters, Tony. "Towards a theory of ethnic identity and migration: the formation of ethnic enclaves by migrant Germans in Russia and North America."International Migration Review(1995): 515-544.
[edit]
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