Ghana Empire

Not to be confused with the modern country,Ghana.

Ghana Empire غانا Wagadou واغادو
c.100–300–c.mid-1200s
The Ghana Empire at its greatest extent
Capital	Koumbi Saleh(likely a later capital)
Common languages	Soninke,Malinke,Mande
Religion	African traditional religion LaterIslam
Government	Monarchy
Ghana
• 700	Kaya Magan Cissé
• 790s	Dyabe Cisse
• 1040–1062	Ghana Bassi
• 1203–1235	Soumaba Cisse
Historical era	1st–3rd century–13th century
• Established	c.100–300
• Conversion toIslam	1076
• Conquered bySosso/Submitted to theMali Empire	c.15th centuryc.mid-1200s
Preceded by Succeeded by Tichitt culture Djenné-Djenno Sosso Empire Kingdom of Diarra Méma Pre-imperial Mali Gajaaga
Today part of	Mali Mauritania Senegal

TheGhana Empire(Arabic:غانا), also known as simplyGhana,Ghanata,orWagadu,was aWest Africanclassical to post-classical era western-Sahelian empire based in the modern-day southeast ofMauritaniaand westernMali.

It is uncertain when Ghana's ruling dynasty began among historians. The first identifiable mention of the imperial dynasty in written records was made byMuḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmīin 830.Further information about the empire was provided by the accounts ofCordobanscholaral-Bakriwhen he wrote about the region in the 11th century.

After centuries of prosperity, the empire began its decline in thesecond millennium,and would finally become avassal stateof the risingMali Empireat some point in the 13th century. Despite its collapse, the empire's influence can be felt in the establishment of numerous urban centers throughout its former territory. In 1957, theBritish colonyof theGold Coast,under the leadership ofKwame Nkrumahnamed itselfGhanaupon independence.

Etymology

The wordghanameanswarriororwar chief,and was the title given to the rulers of the kingdom.Kaya Maghan(king of gold) was another title for these kings. The Soninke name for the polity wasOuagadou.This meant the "place of the Wague", the term current in the 19th century for the localnobility,or may have meant 'the land of great herds'.

Origin Historiography

Oral traditions

See also:History of the Soninke people

According tooral traditions,although they vary much amongst themselves, the legendary progenitory of the Soninke was a man named Dinga, who came "from the east" (possiblyAswan,Egypt), after which he migrated to a variety of locations in western Sudan, in each place leaving children by different wives. In order to take power he had to kill a serpent deity (named Bida), and then marry his daughters, who became the ancestors of the clans that were dominant in the region at the time. Some traditions state he did a deal with Bida to sacrifice one maiden a year in exchange for rainfall, and other versions add a constant supply of gold.Upon Dinga's death, his two sons Khine and Dyabe contested thekingship,and Dyabe was victorious, founding Wagadu.In some versions, the fall of Wagadu happens when a nobleman tries to save a maiden, despite her objection, and kills the snake, unleashing its curse and annulling the prior deal. This tale appears to have been a fragment of what once was a much longer narrative, now lost, however the legend of Wagadu continues to have a deep-rooted significance in Soninke culture and history.The tradition ofGassire's lutementions Wagadu's fall.

The traditions of theMoors,HassaniyaArabs andBerbersinMauritaniamaintain that the earliest occupants of areas such as theAdrarandTagantwere Black. These regions, part of the core of Wagadu, remained largelySoninkeuntil at least the 16th century.

Medieval Arab Writers and a Berber Origin

The earliest discussions of Ghana's origins are found in the Sudanese chronicles ofMahmud Kati(theTarikh al-Fattash) and Abd al-Rahman as-Sadi (theTarikh al-Sudan).Addressing the rulers' origin, theTarikh al-Fattashoffers three different theories: that they wereSoninke;orWangara(a Soninke/Mande group), which the author considered improbable; or that they wereSanhaja Berbers,which the author considered most likely. The author concludes that "the nearest to the truth is that they were not black."This interpretation derived from his opinion that the rulers' genealogies linked them to the Berbers.TheTarikh al-Sudanfurther states that "In origin they were white, though we do not know to whom they trace their origin. Their subjects, however, were Wa'kore [Soninke]."Chronicles byal-Idrisiin the 11th century andIbn Saidin the 13th noted that rulers of Ghana traced their descent from the clan ofMuhammad,either through his protectorAbi Talibor through his son-in-lawAli.

French colonial officials, notablyMaurice Delafosse,erroneously concluded that Ghana had been founded by theBerbersand linked them to North African and Middle Eastern origins. Delafosse produced a convoluted theory of an invasion by "Judeo-Syrians", which he linked to theFulbe(who actually co-foundedTakrur).

This idea of a foreign origin for Wagadu is generally disregarded by modern scholars. Levtzion and Spaulding, for example, argue that al-Idrisi's testimony should be looked at skeptically due to serious miscalculations in geography and historicalchronology.The archaeologist and historian Raymond Mauny argues that al-Kati's and al-Saadi's theories were based on the presence (after Ghana's demise) of nomadic Berbers originally from Libya, and the assumption that they were the ruling caste in an earlier age. Earlier accounts suchYa'qubi(872 CE),al-Masudi(c. 944 CE),Ibn Hawqal(977 CE),al-Biruni(c. 1036 CE), andal-Bakri(1068 CE) all describe the population and rulers of Ghana as "negroes".Delafosse's works, meanwhile, have been harshly criticised by scholars such asCharles Monteil,Robert Cornevin and others for being "unacceptable" and "too creative to be useful to historians", particularly in relation to his interpretation of West African genealogies,

Trade routes of the Western Sahara c. 1000–1500. Goldfields are indicated by light brown shading:Bambuk,Bure,Lobi,andAkan.

Modern Archaeology and a Local Origin

Beginning in the mid 20th century as more archeological data became available, scholars began to favor a purely local origin for Ghana. These works bring together archaeology, descriptive geographical sources written between 830 and 1400 AD, the Tarikhs from the 16th and 17th centuries, and the oral traditions.In 1969 Patrick Munson excavated atDhar Tichitt(a site associated with the ancestors of the Soninke), which clearly reflected a complex culture that was present by 1600 BC and had architectural and material cultural elements similar to those found atKoumbi Salehin the 1920s.

The earliest proto-polity ancestral to Ghana likely arose from a large collection of ancient proto-Mandeagro-pastoralist chiefdoms that were spread over the western-most portion of the Niger River basin for over a millennium roughly spanning 1300 BCE–300 BCE.Munsun theorized that, around 700 BCE Libyco-Berbers raiders destroyed this burgeoning state.Their opening of a trade route north, however, eventually changed the economic calculus from raiding to trade, and the native Soninke reasserted themselves around 300 BCE. This trade and the development of ironworking technology were crucial in the formation of the state.Work in Dhar Tichitt,Dhar NemaandDhar Walatahas shown that, as the desert advanced, the local groups moved southward into the still well-watered areas of what is now northern Mali.

Niger Bend Theory

Historian Dierk Lange has argued that the core of Wagadou was not Koumbi Saleh but in fact lay nearLake Faguibine,on the Niger Bend. This area was historically more fertile than the Tichitt zone, and Lange draws on oral traditions to support his argument, contending that dynastic struggles in the 11th century pushed the capital west.

History

Rise of the Empire

Towards the end of the 3rd century AD, awet periodin the Sahel created areas for human habitation and exploitation which had not been habitable for the best part of a millennium, resulting in Wagadu rising out of theTichitt culture.The introduction of thecamelto the western Sahara in the 3rd century AD and pressure from the nomadic SaharanSanhajaserved as major catalysts for the transformative social changes that resulted in the empire's formation. By the time of theMuslim conquest of North Africain the 7th century, the camel had changed the ancient, irregular trade routes into a network running between North Africa and theNiger River.Soninketraditionportrays early Ghana as very warlike, with horse-mounted warriors key to increasing its territory and population, although details of their expansion are extremely scarce.Wagadu made its profits from maintaining a monopoly ongoldheading north andsaltheading south, despite not controlling the gold fields themselves.It is possible that Wagadu's dominance on trade allowed for the gradual consolidation of many smaller polities into aconfederated state,whose composites stood in varying relations to the core, from fully administered to nominal tribute-paying parity.Based onlarge tumuliscattered across West Africa dating to this period, it has been stipulated that relative to Wagadu there were many more simultaneous and preceding kingdoms which have unfortunately been lost to time.

Information about the empire at its height is sparse. According to Kati'sTarikh al-Fettash,in a section probably composed around 1580 but citing the chief judge Ida al-Massini who lived somewhat earlier, twenty kings ruled Ghana before the advent of Islam.Al-Sadi purports that approximately 18 through 34 ancient Kaya (kings) ruled before theHijraand 24 more kaya (kings) ruled afterward.

Written sources vague as to the empire's maximum extent, though according toal-Bakri,Ghana had forcedAwdaghostin the desert to accept its rule sometime between 970 and 1054.Oral traditions indicate that, at its height, the empire controlledTakrur,Jafunu,Jaara,Bakhunu, Neema, Soso,Guidimakha,Gijume,Gajaaga,as well as the Awker, Adrar, andHodhto the north. It also had some degree of influence overKaniaga,Kaarta,andKhasso.Diabe, supposedly the son of Dinga, is sometimes given credit for driving theMandinkaout of the Gajaaga.Two other Soninke groups to the south, the Gaja and the Karo, were dominated by the Wagu.

Almoravids

Given the scattered nature of the Arabic sources and the ambiguity of the existing archaeological record, it is difficult to determine when and how Ghana declined. With the gradual drying of the Sahel, the all-important epicenters of trade began to most south to theNiger riverand west to theSenegal.This gradually strengthened Ghana's vassals while weakening the core.Awdaghost, at the time a seat of the king, fell to the Almoravids in 1054.

Ghana Bassidied in 1063, and was succeeded by his nephewTunka Manin.This may have created a succession dispute with Bassi's son Qanamar, providing an opportunity for theAlmoravidsto intervene in the empire, promoting pro-Islam candidates for the throne.

A tradition in historiography maintains that Ghana was conquered by theAlmoravid dynastyin 1076–77,but this interpretation has been sharply questioned by modern scholars. Conrad and Fisher (1982) argued that the notion of any Almoravid military conquest at its core is merely perpetuated folklore, derived from a misinterpretation or naive reliance on Arabic sources.Dierke Lange agrees but argues that this does not preclude Almoravid political agitation, claiming that Ghana's demise owed much to the latter.Furthermore, the archaeology of ancient Ghana does not show the signs of rapid change and destruction that would be associated with any Almoravid-era military conquests.

Sheryl L. Burkhalter (1992) suggested that there were reasons to believe that there was conflict between the Almoravids and the empire of Ghana.Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century North African historian who read and cited both al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, reported an ambiguous account of the country's history as related to him by 'Uthman, afaqihof Ghana who took apilgrimage to Meccain 1394, according to which the power of Ghana waned as that of the "veiled people" grew through the Almoravid movement.

Ghana Resurgent

Whether the Almoravids conquered Ghana or not, the country certainly did convert to Islam around 1076.This conversion and its accompanying rejection of the earlier, more accommodating Islam may have pushed theWangaradiaspora throughout the region.In 1083, supported by the Almoravids, Ghana attackedTadmekkaand may have reachedGao,helping to spread Sunni orthodoxy there as well.

Al-Idrisi, whose account was written in 1154, has the country fully Muslim by that date. He describes an empire as powerful as it had been in the days of al-Bakri, 75 years earlier. In fact, he describes its capital as "the greatest of all towns of the Sudan with respect to area, the most populous, and with the most extensive trade."This capital may not be the same city as the one described by al-Bakri, however.In this period the ruling dynasty, now thoroughly Islamized, re-established control over many of the former vassals who had become independent, includingKaniaga,Diarra,Diafunuand others.Ghana was the master of an extensive trade system in theSenegal rivervalley, first established byTakrurin the 10th century, that exported salt fromAwlilthroughout the region. It also controlled the gold mines ofBambuk.During this period Ghana was fully Islamized, and the judicial system had shifted to something more closely resemblingSharia.

Sosso occupation

Map of successor states to the Ghana Empire

This resurgence did not last, however. By 1203, the Sosso rose against their masters and conquered Ghana.Oral historians link the coming of Islam to the final end of Ghana. When the Muslims Cisse dynasty came to power they killed Bida, the sacred snake and protector of the kingdom. A seven year drought ensued, destroying the kingdom and forcing much of the population to flee in search of more hospitable territory.According to much later traditions, from the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Diara Kante took control of Koumbi Saleh and established the Diarisso dynasty. His son,Soumaoro Kante,succeeded him and forced the people to pay him tribute. The Sosso also managed to annex the neighboringMandinkastate ofKangabato the south, where the important goldfields ofBurewere located.

Vassal of Mali

In his brief overview of Sudanese history,Ibn Khaldunrelated that "the people ofMalioutnumbered the peoples of the Sudan in their neighborhood and dominated the whole region. "He went on to relate that they" vanquished theSusuand acquired all their possessions, both their ancient kingdom and that of Ghana. "According to a modern tradition, this resurgence of Mali was led bySundiata Keita,the founder of Mali and ruler of its core area ofKangaba.Delafosseassigned an arbitrary but widely accepted date of 1230 to the event.

This tradition states thatGhanaSoumaba Cisse, at the time a vassal of theSosso,rebelled with Kangaba and became part of a loose federation of Mande-speaking states. After Soumaoro's defeat at theBattle of Kirinain 1235 (a date again assigned arbitrarily by Delafosse), the new rulers of Koumbi Saleh became permanent allies of theMali Empire.As Mali became more powerful, the Ghana's role as an ally declined to that of a submissive state, although he was still accorded prestige as the leader of an ancient and storied state.According to a detailed account of al-'Umari, written around 1340 but based on testimony given to him by the "truthful and trustworthy" shaykh Abu Uthman Sa'id al-Dukkali, Ghana still retained its functions as a sort of kingdom within the empire, its ruler being the only one allowed to bear the titlemalikand "who is like a deputy unto him."

Koumbi Saleh was abandoned sometime in the 15th century.

Economy

Most of the information about the economy of Ghana comes fromal-Bakri.He noted that merchants had to pay a tax of one golddinaron imports of salt, and two on exports of salt. Other products had fixed dues; al-Bakri mentioned both copper and "other goods." Imports probably included products such as textiles, ornaments and other materials. Many of the hand-crafted leather goods found in present-day Morocco also had their origins in the empire.al-Bakri also mentioned that Muslims played a central role in commerce and held court appointments.

Ibn Hawqalquotes the use of achequeworth 42,000 dinars.The main centre of trade wasKoumbi Saleh.The king claimed as his own all nuggets of gold, and allowed other people to have only 'gold dust'.In addition to the influence exerted by the king in local regions, tribute was received from various tributary states andchiefdomson the empire's periphery.The introduction of thecamelplayed a key role in Soninke success as well, allowing products and goods to be transported much more efficiently across the Sahara. These contributing factors all helped the empire remain powerful for some time, providing a rich and stable economy based on trading gold, iron, salt and slaves.

In its last centuries, Ghana increasingly lost control of the gold trade to theMali Empireand relied on slave raiding and trading as a principal economic activity.

Government

Testimony about ancient Ghana depended on how well disposed the king was to foreign travelers, from whom the majority of information on the empire comes. Islamic writers often commented on the social-political stability of the empire based on the seemingly just actions and grandeur of the king.Al-Bakri,aMoorishnobleman living in Spain questioned merchants who visited the empire in the 11th century and wrote of the king:

He sits in audience or to hear grievances against officials in a domed pavilion around which stand ten horses covered with gold-embroidered materials. Behind the king stand ten pages holding shields and swords decorated with gold, and on his right are the sons of the kings of his country wearing splendid garments and their hair plaited with gold. The governor of the city sits on the ground before the king and around him are ministers seated likewise. At the door of the pavilion are dogs of excellent pedigree that hardly ever leave the place where the king is, guarding him. Around their necks they wear collars of gold and silver studded with a number of balls of the same metals.

Ghana appears to have had a central core region and was surrounded byvassal statesincluding the Baxaran of Maghan and the Gbewaa States south of the sahel region. One of the earliest sources to describe Ghana, al-Ya'qubi, writing in 889/90 (276 AH) says that "under his authority are a number of kings" which included Sama and 'Am (?) and so extended at least to the Niger River valley.These "kings" were presumably the rulers of the territorial units often calledkafuinMandinka.

The Arabic sources are vague as to how the country was governed. Al-Bakri, far and away the most detailed one, mentions that the king had officials (mazalim) who surrounded his throne when he gave justice, and these included the sons of the "kings of his country" which we must assume are the same kings that al-Ya'qubi mentioned in his account of nearly 200 years earlier. Al-Bakri's detailed geography of the region shows that in his day, or 1067/1068, Ghana was surrounded by independent kingdoms, and Sila, one of them located on theSenegal River,was "almost a match for the king of Ghana." Sama is the only such entity mentioned as a province, as it was in al-Ya'qubi's day.

In al-Bakri's time, the rulers of Ghana had begun to incorporate more Muslims into government, including the treasurer, his interpreter, and "the majority of his officials."

Koumbi Saleh

Main article:Koumbi Saleh

• 
  Central mausoleum in 1951 (left) and 2007 (right)
• 
  Column Tomb with remains of the corner columns still intact
• 
  Individual burial from the Column Tomb with isolated stele placed at the head
• 
  Western necropolis of Koumbi Saleh showing the density of funerary structures
• 
  Funerary complex of the Column Tomb
• 
  Central mausoleum (the qubba) of the Column Tomb
• 
  Burial excavation showing the over-pit system and surface arrangements

A 17th-century chronicle written inTimbuktu,theTarikh al-fattash,gave the name of the empire's capital as "Koumbi".According to the description of the town left byAl-Bakriin 1067/1068, the capital actually consisted of two cities 10 kilometres (6 mi) apart but "between these two towns are continuous habitations", so that they might be said to have merged into one.The most common identification for this capital is the site ofKoumbi Salehon the rim of the Sahara desert.

El-Ghaba

According to al-Bakri, the major part of the city was called El-Ghaba and was the residence of the king. It was protected by a stone wall and functioned as the royal and spiritual capital of the Empire. It contained a sacred grove of trees in which priests lived. It also contained the king's palace, the grandest structure in the city, surrounded by other "domed buildings". There was also one mosque for visiting Muslim officials.(El-Ghaba, coincidentally or not, means "The Forest" in Arabic.)

Muslim district

The name of the other section of the city is not recorded. In the vicinity were wells with fresh water, used to grow vegetables. It was inhabited almost entirely by Muslims, who had with twelvemosques,one of which was designated for Friday prayers, and had a full group of scholars, scribes and Islamic jurists. Because the majority of these Muslims were merchants, this part of the city was probably its primary business district.It is likely that these inhabitants were largely black Muslims known as theWangaraand are today known asJakhankeorMandinka.The separate and autonomous towns outside of the main governmental center is a well-known practice used by the Jakhanke tribe of the Mandinka people throughout history.

Archaeology

The Western Nile according toal-Bakri(1068)

Beginning in the 1920s, French archaeologists excavated the site ofKoumbi Saleh,although there have always been controversies about the location of Ghana's capital and whether Koumbi Saleh is the same town as the one described by al-Bakri. The site was excavated in 1949–50 by Paul Thomassey and Raymond Maunyand by another French team in 1975–81.The remains of Koumbi Saleh are impressive, even if the remains of the royal town, with its large palace and burial mounds, have not been located.

Contested Identification

The Western Nile according toMuhammad al-Idrisi(1154)

In recent years, the identification of Koumbi Saleh with the 'city of Ghana' described in the sources has been increasingly disputed by scholars.al-Idrisi,a twelfth-century writer, described Ghana's royal city as lying on a riverbank, a river he called the "Nile." This followed the geographic custom of his day, which confused the Niger and Senegal Rivers and believed that they formed a single river often called the "Nile of the Blacks". Whether al-Idrisi was referring to a new and later capital located elsewhere, or whether there was confusion or corruption in his text is unclear. However, he does state that the royal palace he knew was built in 510 AH (1116–1117 AD), suggesting that it was a newer town, rebuilt closer to the river than Koumbi Saleh.

Demographics

The empire was populated by ancient Mande tribes and would come under unity through theSoninketribe of the greaterMandeethnic group, with its citizens living in deeply establishedpatrilineal/paternalclansand family structures.

List of rulers

Soninke rulers ( "Ghanas" ) of the Cisse dynasty

• Kaya Magan Cissé(also known as Dinga Cisse)
• Dyabe Cisse: circa 790s
• Bassi:1040–1062
• Tunka Manin:1062–1076

Sosso rulers

• Kambine Diaresso (sometimes also written as Jarisso): 1087–1090
• Suleiman: 1090–1100
• Bannu Bubu: 1100–1120
• Magan Wagadou: 1120–1130
• Gane: 1130–1140
• Musa: 1140–1160
• Birama: 1160–1180

Rulers during Kaniaga occupation

• Diara Kante: 1180–1202
• Soumaba Cisse as vassal ofSoumaoro Kanté:1203–1235

Ghanas of Wagadou tributary

• Soumaba Cisse as ally ofSundiata Keita:1235–1240

See also

• History of the Soninke people
• Islam in Africa
• Mande People

References

Bibliography

• Berthier, Sophie (1997),Recherches archéologiques sur la capitale de l'empire de Ghana: Etude d'un secteur, d'habitat à Koumbi Saleh, Mauritanie: Campagnes II-III-IV-V (1975–1976)-(1980–1981),British Archaeological Reports 680, Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 41, Oxford: Archaeopress,ISBN978-0-86054-868-3.
• Delafosse, Maurice(1912),Haut-Sénégal-Niger: Le Pays, les Peuples, les Langues; l'Histoire; les Civilizations. 3 Vols(in French), Paris: Émile Larose.Gallica: Volume 1,Le Pays, les Peuples, les Langues;Volume 2,L'Histoire;Volume 3,Les Civilisations.
• Ehret, Christopher (2016),The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800,Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press
• Fall, Mamadou (2021). "Les Terroirs Historiques et la Poussée Soninké". In Fall, Mamadou; Fall, Rokhaya; Mane, Mamadou (eds.).Bipolarisation du Senegal du XVIe - XVIIe siécle(in French). Dakar: HGS Editions. pp. 14–39.
• Gomez, Michael (2018).African dominion: a new history of empire in early and medieval West Africa.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-17742-7.
• Houdas, Octave; Delafosse, Maurice, eds. (1913),Tarikh el-fettach par Mahmoūd Kāti et l'un de ses petit fils (2 Vols.),Paris: Ernest Leroux.Volume 1 is the Arabic text, Volume 2 is a translation into French. Reprinted byMaisonneuvein 1964 and 1981. The French text is alsoavailablefrom Aluka but requires a subscription.
• Hunwick, John O.(2003),Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents,Leiden: Brill,ISBN978-90-04-12560-5.Reprint of the 1999 edition with corrections.
• Insoll, Timothy (2003),Archaeology of Islam in Sub-saharan Africa,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0-521-65702-0.
• Lange, Dierk (1996a), "The Almoravid expansion and the downfall of Ghana",Der Islam,73(2): 313–51,doi:10.1515/islm.1996.73.2.313,S2CID162370098.Reprinted in Lange 2004, pp. 455–493.
• Lange, Dierk (1996b)."La Chute De La Dynastie Des Sisse: Considerations Sur La Dislocation De L'Empire Du Ghana A Partir De L'Histoire De Gao".History in Africa(in French).23:155–178.doi:10.2307/3171939.JSTOR3171939.Retrieved22 March2024.
• Lange, Dierk (2004),Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa,Dettelbach, Germany: J. H. Röll,ISBN978-3-89754-115-3.
• Levtzion, Nehemia (1973),Ancient Ghana and Mali(PDF),London: Methuen,ISBN978-0-8419-0431-6.Reprinted with additions 1980.
• Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John F. P. eds. and trans. (2000),Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa,New York, NY: Marcus Weiner,ISBN978-1-55876-241-1.First published in 1981 by Cambridge University Press,ISBN0-521-22422-5.
• Levtzion, Nehemia; Spaulding, Jay (2003),Medieval West Africa: Views from Arab Scholars and Merchants,Princeton NJ: Markus Wiener,ISBN978-1-55876-305-0.Excerpts from Levtzion & Hopkins 1981. Includes an extended introduction.
• Lewicki, Tadeusz (1971)."Un État Soudanais Médiéval Inconnu: Le Royaume de Zāfūn(u)".Cahiers d'Études Africaines(in French).11(44): 501–25.doi:10.3406/cea.1971.2781.JSTOR4391129.Retrieved19 March2024.
• Masonen, Pekka; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1996),"Not quite Venus from the waves: The Almoravid conquest of Ghana in the modern historiography of Western Africa"(PDF),History in Africa,23:197–232,doi:10.2307/3171941,JSTOR3171941,S2CID162477947.
• Mauny, Raymond A. (1954), "The question of Ghana",Journal of the International African Institute,24(3): 200–213,doi:10.2307/1156424,JSTOR1156424,S2CID143619637.
• Mauny, Raymond (1961),Tableau géographique de l'ouest africain au moyen age, d'après les sources écrites, la tradition et l'archéologie,Dakar: Institut français d'Afrique Noire.
• Munson, Patrick J. (1980), "Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana Empire",The Journal of African History,21(4): 457–466,doi:10.1017/s0021853700018685,JSTOR182004,S2CID161981607.
• Thomassey, Paul; Mauny, Raymond (1951),"Campagne de fouilles à Koumbi Saleh",Bulletin de l'Institut Français de l'Afrique Noire (B)(in French),13:438–462, archived fromthe originalon 2011-07-26.Includes a plan of the site.

Further reading

• Conrad, David C.; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1982), "The conquest that never was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. I. The external Arabic sources",History in Africa,9:21–59,doi:10.2307/3171598,JSTOR3171598,S2CID163009319.
• Conrad, David C.; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1983), "The conquest that never was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. II. The local oral sources",History in Africa,10:53–78,doi:10.2307/3171690,JSTOR3171690,S2CID162867483.
• Cornevin, Robert (1965), "Ghana",Encyclopaedia of Islam Volume 2(2nd ed.), Leiden: Brill, pp. 1001–2,ISBN978-90-04-07026-4.
• Cuoq, Joseph M., ed. (1975),Recueil des sources arabes concernant l'Afrique occidentale du VIIIe au XVIe siècle (Bilād al-Sūdān)(in French), translated by Cuoq, Joseph M., Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.Reprinted in 1985 with corrections and additional texts,ISBN2-222-01718-1.Similar to Levtzion and Hopkins, 1981 & 2000.
• Masonen, Pekka (2000),The Negroland revisited: Discovery and invention of the Sudanese middle ages,Helsinki: Finnish Academy of Science and Letters, pp. 519–23,ISBN978-951-41-0886-0.
• Mauny, Raymond (1971), "The Western Sudan", in Shinnie, P.L. (ed.),The African Iron age,Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 66–87,ISBN978-0-19-813158-8.
• Monteil, Charles (1954), "La légende du Ouagadou et l'origine des Soninke",Mélanges Ethnologiques,Dakar: Mémoire de l'Institute Français d'Afrique Noire 23, pp. 359–408.

External links

• Ghana Empire - World History Encyclopedia
• African Kingdoms | Ghana
• Empires of west Sudan
• Kingdom of Ghana, Primary Source Documents
• Ancient Ghana— BBC World Service