War of Jenkins' Ear

War of Jenkins' Ear
Part of theWar of the Austrian Succession
Trade map of the West Indies and North America during the war, 1741
Date 22 October 1739 – 18 October 1748 Location New Granadaand theCaribbean;Florida–Georgia;PacificandAtlantic Result Status quo ante bellum (seeaftermath)
Belligerents
British Empire	Spanish Empire
Commanders and leaders
Sir Robert Walpole# Lord Wilmington# Henry Pelham Edward Vernon Chaloner Ogle George Anson Charles Knowles Thomas Wentworth James Oglethorpe Lord Cathcart#	Philip V# Ferdinand VI Sebastián de Eslava Blas de Lezo# Manuel de Montiano Andrés Reggio Gabriel de Zuloaga
Casualties and losses
1739–1741: 20,000 dead and wounded 1741–1744: 30,000 dead 407 ships lost	1739–1748: 4,500 dead 5,000 wounded

TheWar of Jenkins' Ear(Spanish:Guerra del Asiento,lit. 'War of the Agreement') was a conflict lasting from 1739 to 1748 betweenBritainandSpain.The majority of the fighting took place inNew Granadaand theCaribbean Sea,with major operations largely ended by 1742. It was related to the 1740 to 1748War of the Austrian Succession.The name was coined in 1858 by British historianThomas Carlyle,and refers toRobert Jenkins,captain of the BritishbrigRebecca,whose ear was allegedly severed by Spanishcoast guardswhile searching his ship for contraband in April 1731.

Response to the incident was tepid until opposition politicians in theBritish Parliament,backed by theSouth Sea Company,used it seven years later to incite support for a war against Spain, hoping to improve British trading opportunities in the Caribbean.They also wanted to retain the lucrativeAsiento de Negros,a contract issued by Spain to British merchants granting them permission tosell slavesinSpanish America,which is why the Spanish call it theGuerra del Asiento.The failed British attack at theBattle of Cartagena de Indiasin 1741 resulted in heavy British casualties, primarily from disease and was not repeated.

Apart from minor fighting inFlorida,Georgia,andHavana,after 1742 the conflict was largely subsumed into the War of the Austrian Succession, which involved most of the powers of Europe, and ended with the 1748Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.Great Britain failed to achieve its territorial and economic ambitions,and Spain successfully defended its possessions in theAmericas.The war is remembered in British naval history for AdmiralGeorge Anson's voyage around the worldfrom 1740 to 1744.

Background

The war was traditionally seen as a dispute between Britain and Spain over access to markets inSpanish America.More recent historians argue trade was only one of a number of issues, including tensions over British colonial expansion inNorth America.They suggest the decisive factor in turning an economic dispute into war was the domestic political campaign to remove theWhiggovernment led byRobert Walpole,Prime Ministersince 1721.

The 18th-century economic theory ofmercantilismviewed trade as a finite resource; since countries could in theory only increase their share at the expense of their rivals, wars were often fought over purely commercial issues.The 1713Treaty of Utrechtgave British merchants access to markets in Spanish America, including theAsiento de Negros,a monopoly to supply 5,000 slaves a year. Another was theNavio de Permiso,permitting two ships a year to sell 500 tons of goods each inPorto BelloinPanama,andVeracruzinMexico.These rights were assigned to theSouth Sea Company,acquired by the British government in 1720.

However, the value of these rights was insignificant compared to the trade between Britain and mainland Spain, which a leadingCity of Londonmerchant called 'the best flower in our garden.' British goods were imported throughCadiz,either for sale locally or re-export to Spanish colonies, with Spanish dye and wool going in the other direction.Theasientoitself was marginally profitable and has been described as a 'commercial illusion'; between 1717 and 1733, only eight ships were sent from Britain to the Americas.Previous holders made money by carrying smuggled goods that evaded customs duties, demand from Spanish colonists creating a large and profitableblack market.

Accepting that smuggling was too lucrative and widespread to stop altogether, the Spanish tried to manage it and sometimes used it as an instrument of policy. During the 1727 to 1729Anglo-Spanish War,French ships carrying contraband were let through, while British ships were stopped and severe restrictions imposed on British merchants in Cadiz. This was reversed during the 1733 to 1735War of the Polish Succession,when Britain supported Spain.

The establishment ofGeorgiain 1733 raised tensions by threatening Spanish possessions in the Caribbean Basin.

Under the 1729Treaty of Seville,the Spanish were allowed to board British vessels trading with the Americas and check them for contraband. In 1731, the brigRebeccawas stopped off the coast ofCubaand found to be carrying an illegal cargo of sugar; during the search, its captainRobert Jenkinslater alleged he had been tortured and his ear partially amputated by coastguard officers. While deprecating such treatment, the Royal Naval commander inPort Royaladmitted those involved in what he described as "clandestine trade" could not complain if their cargoes were confiscated and often indulged in violence themselves.Such incidents were seen as the cost of doing business and it was quickly forgotten after the Spanish eased restrictions in 1732.

Tensions increased after the founding of the British colony ofGeorgiain 1732, which Spain considered a threat toSpanish Florida,vital to protect shipping routes with mainland Spain.For their part, the British viewed the 1733Pacte de FamillebetweenLouis XVand his unclePhilip Vas the first step in being replaced by France as Spain's largest trading partner.A second round of Spanish "depredations" in 1738 led to demands for compensation, withTory-backed newsletters and pamphlets presenting them as being inspired by France.Linking these allowed the opposition to imply the government's failure to act was due toGeorge II's concerns over exposingHanoverto French attack.In support of their campaign against Walpole, the Tories exhibited Jenkins in theHouse of Commonsand it was at this point that the incident became widely known.

The January 1739Convention of Pardoset up a Commission to resolve the Georgia-Florida boundary dispute and agreed Spain would pay damages of £95,000 for ships seized. In return, the South Sea Company would pay £68,000 toPhilip Vas his share of profits on theasiento.Despite being controlled by the government, the company refused and Walpole reluctantly accepted that war could not be avoided.On 10 July 1739, theAdmiraltywas authorised to begin naval operations against Spain and on 20th, a force underAdmiral Vernonsailed for theWest Indies.He reachedAntiguain early October; on 22 October, British ships attackedLa Guairaand Puerto Cabello, principal ports of theProvince of Venezuelaand Britain formally declared war on 23 October 1739.

Name

Further information:Robert Jenkins (master mariner)

The incident that gave its name to the war had occurred in 1731, off the coast ofFlorida,when the BritishbrigRebeccawas boarded by a party from the Spanishpatrol boatLa Isabela,commanded by theguarda costa(effectively privateer) Juan de León Fandiño. After boarding, Fandiño cut off the left ear of theRebecca's captain,Robert Jenkins,whom he accused ofsmuggling(althoughFranklin'sPennsylvania Gazettefor 7 October 1731, says it was Lieutenant Dorce).Fandiño told Jenkins, "Go, and tell your King that I will do the same, if he dares to do the same." In March 1738, Jenkins was ordered to testify before Parliament, presumably to repeat his story before a committee of theHouse of Commons.According to some accounts, he produced the severed ear as part of his presentation, although no detailed record of the hearing exists.The incident was considered alongside various other cases of "Spanish Depredations upon the British Subjects",and was perceived as an insult to Britain's honour and a clearcasus belli.

The conflict was named by essayist and historianThomas Carlyle,in 1858, 110 years after hostilities ended. Carlyle mentioned the ear in several passages of hisHistory of Friedrich II(1858), most notably in Book XI, chapter VI, where he refers specifically to "the War of Jenkins's Ear".

Conduct of the war

First attack on La Guaira (22 October 1739)

See also:Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas

Vernon sent three ships commanded by Captain Thomas Waterhouse to intercept Spanish ships betweenLa GuairaandPorto Bello.He decided to attack a number of vessels that he observed at La Guaira, which was controlled by theRoyal Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas.The governor of theProvince of Venezuela,Brigadier DonGabriel de Zuloagahad prepared the port defences, and Spanish troops were well-commanded by Captain Don Francisco Saucedo. On 22 October, Waterhouse entered the port of La Guaira flying the Spanish flag. Expecting attack, the port gunners were not deceived by hisruse;they waited until the Britishsquadronwas within range and then simultaneously opened fire. After three hours of heavy shelling, Waterhouse ordered a withdrawal. The battered British squadron sailed to Jamaica to undertake emergency repairs. Trying later to explain his actions, Waterhouse argued that the capture of a few small Spanish vessels would not have justified the loss of his men.

Capture of Portobelo (20–22 November 1739)

Main article:Battle of Porto Bello (1739)

Ruins of the fortress of San Jeronimo, Portobelo

Prior to 1739, trade between mainland Spain and its colonies was conducted only through specific ports; twice a year, outward bound ships assembled inCadizand theFlotaescorted toPortobeloorVeracruz.One way to impact Spanish trade was by attacking or blockading these ports but as many ships carried cargoes financed by foreign merchants, the strategy also risked damaging British and neutral interests.

During the 1727 to 1729Anglo-Spanish War,the British attempted to takePortobelobut retreated after heavy losses from disease. On 22 November 1739, Vernon attacked the port with sixships of the line;it fell within twenty-four hours and the British occupied the town for three weeks before withdrawing, having first destroyed its fortifications, port and warehouses.

The victory was widely celebrated in Britain; the song "Rule Britannia"was written in 1740 to mark the occasion and performed for the first time at a dinner in London honouring Vernon.The suburb ofPortobello in EdinburghandPortobello Roadin London are among the places in Britain named after this success, while more medals were awarded for its capture than any other event in the eighteenth century.

However, taking a port in Spain's American empire was considered a foregone conclusion by manyPatriot Whigsand oppositionTories.They now pressed a reluctant Walpole to launch larger naval expeditions to theGulf of Mexico.In the longer term, the Spanish replaced the twice yearlyFlotawith a larger number of smaller convoys, calling at more ports and Portobelo's economy did not recover until the building of thePanama Canalnearly two centuries later.

First attack on Cartagena de Indias (13–20 March 1740)

Spanish Admiral DonBlas de Lezo1741

Following the success of Portobelo, Vernon decided to focus his efforts on the capture ofCartagena de Indiasin present-day Colombia. Both Vernon andEdward Trelawny,governor of Jamaica, considered the Spanish gold shipping port to be a prime objective. Since the outbreak of the war, and Vernon's arrival in the Caribbean, the British had made a concerted effort to gain intelligence on the defences of Cartagena. In October 1739, Vernon sent First Lieutenant Percival to deliver a letter toBlas de Lezoand Don Pedro Hidalgo, governor of Cartagena. Percival was to use the opportunity to make a detailed study of the Spanish defences. This effort was thwarted when Percival was denied entry to the port.

On 7 March 1740, in a more direct approach, Vernon undertook areconnaissance-in-forceof the Spanish city. Vernon leftPort Royalin command of a squadron includingships of the line,twofire ships,threebomb vessels,andtransport ships.Reaching Cartagena on 13 March, Vernon immediately landed several men to map thetopographyand to reconnoitre the Spanish squadron anchored in Playa Grande, west of Cartagena. Having not seen any reaction from the Spanish, on 18 March Vernon ordered the three bomb vessels to open fire on the city. Vernon intended to provoke a response that might give him a better idea of the defensive capabilities of the Spanish. Understanding Vernon's motives, Lezo did not immediately respond. Instead, Lezo ordered the removal of guns from some of his ships, in order to form a temporaryshore batteryfor the purpose ofsuppressive fire.Vernon next initiated anamphibious assault,but in the face of strong resistance, the attempt to land 400 soldiers was unsuccessful. The British then undertook a three-daynaval bombardmentof the city. In total, the campaign lasted 21 days. Vernon then withdrew his forces, leaving HMSWindsor Castleand HMSGreenwichin the vicinity, with a mission to intercept any Spanish ship that might approach.

Destruction of the fortress of San Lorenzo el Real Chagres (22–24 March 1740)

Fortress of San Lorenzo el Real Chagres

After the destruction of Portobelo the previous November, Vernon proceeded to remove the last Spanish stronghold in the area. He attacked thefortress of San Lorenzo el Real Chagres,in present-dayPanamaon the banks of theChagres River,near Portobelo. The fort was defended by Spanishpatrol boats,and was armed with four guns and about thirty soldiers under Captain of Infantry Don Juan Carlos Gutiérrez Cevallos.

At 3 pm on 22 March 1740, the Britishsquadron,composed of the shipsStafford,Norwich,FalmouthandPrincess Louisa,the frigateDiamond,thebomb vesselsAlderney,Terrible,andCumberland,thefireshipsSuccessandEleanor,andtransportsGoodlyandPompey,under command ofVernon,began to bombard the Spanish fortress. Given the overwhelming superiority of the British forces, Captain Cevallos surrendered the fort on 24 March, after resisting for two days.

Following the strategy previously applied at Porto Bello, the British destroyed the fort and seized the guns along with two Spanish patrol boats.

During this time of British victories along the Caribbean coast, events taking place in Spain would prove to have a significant effect on the outcome of the largest engagement of the war. Spain had decided to replace Don Pedro Hidalgo as governor ofCartagena de Indias.But, the new governor-designate, Lieutenant General of the Royal ArmiesSebastián de Eslava y Lazagahad first to dodge theRoyal Navyin order to get to his new post. Starting from theGalicianport ofFerrol,the vesselsGaliciaandSan Carlosset out on the journey. Hearing the news, Vernon immediately sent four ships to intercept the Spanish. They were unsuccessful in their mission. The Spanish managed to circumvent the British interceptors and entered the port of Cartagena on 21 April 1740, landing there with the new governor and several hundred veteran soldiers.

Second attack on Cartagena de Indias (3 May 1740)

In May, Vernon returned to Cartagena de Indias aboard the flagshipHMSPrincess Carolinein charge of 13 warships, with the intention of bombarding the city. Lezo reacted by deploying his sixships of the lineso that the British fleet was forced into ranges where they could only make short or long shots that were of little value. Vernon withdrew, asserting that the attack was merely a manoeuver. The main consequence of this action was to help the Spanish test their defences.

Third attack on Cartagena de Indias (13 March – 20 May 1741)

Main article:Battle of Cartagena de Indias

Castillo San Felipe de Barajas(Cartagena). This (then incomplete) fortress was integral to Spain's effort to maintain the link with its colonies via the Atlanticsea lanes.

British operations in the Caribbean Sea during the War of Jenkins' Ear

The largest action of the war was a majoramphibious attacklaunched by the British under Admiral Edward Vernon in March 1741 against Cartagena de Indias, one of Spain's principal gold-trading ports in their colony of New Granada (todayColombia). Vernon's expedition was hampered by inefficient organisation, his rivalry with the commander of his land forces, and the logistical problems of mounting and maintaining a major trans-Atlantic expedition. The strong fortifications in Cartagena and the able strategy of Spanish CommanderBlas de Lezowere decisive in repelling the attack. Heavy losses on the British side were due in large part to virulent tropical diseases, primarily an outbreak ofyellow fever,which took more lives than were lost in battle.

The extreme ease with which the British destroyed Porto Bello led to a change in British plans. Instead of Vernon concentrating his next attack on Havana as expected, in order to conquer Cuba, he planned to attackCartagena de Indias.Located in Colombia, it was the main port of the Viceroyalty and main point of theWest Indian fleetfor sailing to theIberian Peninsula.In preparation the British gathered inJamaicaone of the largest fleets ever assembled. It consisted of 186 ships (60 more than the famousSpanish ArmadaofPhilip II), bearing 2,620 artillery pieces and more than 27,000 men. Of that number, 10,000 were soldiers responsible for initiating the assault. There were also 12,600 sailors, 1,000 Jamaican slaves and macheteros, and 4,000 recruits fromVirginia.The latter were led byLawrence Washington,the older half-brother ofGeorge Washington,future President of the United States.

Colonial officials assigned Admiral Blas de Lezo to defend the fortified city. He was a marine veteran hardened by numerous naval battles in Europe, beginning with theWar of the Spanish Succession,and by confrontations with European pirates in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean, andBarbary piratesin the Mediterranean Sea. Assisting in that effort were Melchor de Navarrete and Carlos Desnaux, with a squadron of six ships of the line (the flagship vesselGaliciatogether with theSan Felipe,San Carlos,África,Dragón,andConquistador) and a force of 3,000 soldiers, 600 militia and a group of native Indian archers.

Vernon ordered his forces to clear the port of allscuttledships. On 13 March 1741, he landed a contingent of troops under command of Major GeneralThomas Wentworthand artillery to take Fort de San Luis de Bocachica. In support of that action, the British ships simultaneously opened with cannon fire, at a rate of 62 shots per hour. In turn, Lezo ordered four of the Spanish ships to aid 500 of his troops defending Desnaux's position, but the Spanish eventually had to retire to the city. Civilians were already evacuating it. After leaving Fort Bocagrande, the Spanish regrouped atFort San Felipe de Barajas,while Washington's Virginians took up positions in the nearby hill of La Popa. Vernon, believing the victory at hand, sent a message to Jamaica stating that he had taken the city. The report was subsequently forwarded to London, where there was much celebration. Commemorative medals were minted, depicting the defeated Spanish defenders kneeling before Vernon.The robust image of the enemy depicted in the British medals bore little resemblance to Admiral Lezo. Maimed by years of battle, he was one-eyed and lame, with limited use of one hand.

On the evening of 19 April, the British mounted an assault in force uponCastillo San Felipe de Barajas.Three columns ofgrenadiers,supported by Jamaicans and several British companies, moved under cover of darkness, with the aid of an intensenaval bombardment.The British fought their way to the base of the fort'srampartswhere they discovered that the Spanish had dug deep trenches. This effectively rendered the Britishscaling equipmenttoo short for the task. The British advance was stymied since the fort's walls had not been breached, and the ramparts could not be topped. Neither could the British easily withdraw in the face of intense Spanish fire and under the weight of their own equipment. The Spanish seized on this opportunity, with devastating effect.

Reversing the tide of battle, the Spanish initiated afixed bayonetcharge at first light, inflicting heavy casualties on the British.The surviving British forces retreated to the safety of their ships. The British maintained a naval bombardment, sinking what remained of the small Spanish squadron (after Lezo's decision toscuttlesome of his ships in an effort to block the harbour entrance). The Spanish thwarted any British attempt to land another ground assault force. The British troops were forced to remain aboard ship for a month, without sufficient reserves. With supplies running low, and with the outbreak of disease (primarilyyellow fever), which took the lives of many on the crowded ships,Vernon was forced to raise thesiegeon 9 May and return to Jamaica. Six thousand British died while only one thousand Spanish perished.

Vernon carried on, successfully attacking the Spanish atGuantánamo Bay,Cuba. On 5 March 1742, with the help of reinforcements from Europe, he launched an assault onPanama City,Panama.In 1742, Vernon was replaced byRear-AdmiralChaloner Ogleand returned to England, where he gave an accounting to theAdmiralty.He learned that he had been electedMPforIpswich.Vernon maintained his naval career for another four years before retiring in 1746. In an active Parliamentary career, Vernon advocated for improvements in naval procedures. He continued to hold an interest in naval affairs until his death in 1757.

News of the defeat at Cartagena was a significant factor in the downfall of the British Prime MinisterRobert Walpole.Walpole's anti-war views were considered by the Opposition to have contributed to his poor prosecution of the war effort.

The new government underLord Wilmingtonwanted to shift the focus of Britain's war effort away from the Americas and into the Mediterranean. Spanish policy, dictated by the queenElisabeth Farneseof Parma, also shifted to a European focus, to recover lost Spanish possessions in Italy from the Austrians. In 1742, a large British fleet underNicholas Haddockwas sent to try and intercept a Spanish army being transported fromBarcelonato Italy, which he failed to do having only 10 ships.With the arrival of additional ships from Britain in February 1742, Haddock successfully blockaded the Spanish coastfailing to force the Spanish fleet into an action.

Lawrence Washingtonsurvived the yellow fever outbreak, and eventually retired toVirginia.He named his estateMount Vernon,in honour of his former commander.

Anson expedition

Further information:George Anson's voyage around the worldandWager Mutiny

George Anson'scapture of theManila galleon,painted bySamuel Scottbefore 1772

The success of the Porto Bello operation led the British, in September 1740, to send a squadron under CommodoreGeorge Ansonto attackSpain's possessions in the Pacific.Before they reached the Pacific, numerous men were killed by disease, they had to outrun pursuing Spanish naval vessels, and ultimately the fleet found itself in no shape to launch any sort of attack.Anson reassembled his force in theJuan Fernández Islands,allowing them to recuperate before he moved up theChileancoast, raiding the small town ofPaita.He reachedAcapulcotoo late to intercept the yearlyManila galleon,which had been one of the principal objectives of the expedition. He retreated across the Pacific, running into a storm that forced him to dock for repairs inCanton.After this he tried again the following year to intercept the Manila galleon. He accomplished this on 20 June 1743 offCape Espiritu Santo,capturing more than a million gold coins.

Anson sailed home, arriving in London more than three and a half years after he had set out, havingcircumnavigated the globein the process. Less than a tenth of his forces had survived the expedition. Anson's achievements helped establish his name and wealth in Britain, leading to his appointment asFirst Lord of the Admiralty.One of his ships,HMSWager,was presumed lost in the storms roundCape Hornthe survivors would later take part in a sensational public inquiry concerning allegations ofmutiny,cannibalism,and murder among theWager's crew.

Florida

Main article:Siege of St. Augustine (1740)

In 1740, the inhabitants ofGeorgialaunched an overland attack on thefortified cityofSt. Augustinein Florida, supported by a British naval blockade, but were repelled. The British forces led byJames Oglethorpe,the Governor of Georgia,besieged St. Augustinefor over a month before retreating, and abandoned theirartilleryin the process. The failure of theRoyal Navyblockade to prevent supplies reaching the settlement was a crucial factor in the collapse of the siege. Oglethorpe began preparing Georgia for an expected Spanish assault. The Battle of Bloody Mose, where the Spanish and free black forces repelled Oglethorpe's forces atFort Mose,was also a part of the War of Jenkins' Ear.

French neutrality

When war broke out in 1739, both Britain and Spain expected that France would join the war on the Spanish side. This played a large role in the tactical calculations of the British. If the Spanish and French were to operate together, they would have a superiority of ninetyships of the line.In 1740, there was aninvasion scarewhen it was believed that a French fleet atBrestand a Spanish fleet atFerrolwere about to combine and launch an invasion of England.Although this proved not to be the case, the British kept the bulk of their naval and land forces in or near southern England to act as adeterrent.

Many in the British government were afraid to launch a major offensive against the Spanish, for fear that a major British victory would draw France into the war to protect thebalance of power.

Invasion of Georgia

Main article:Invasion of Georgia (1742)

In 1742, the Spanish launched an attempt to seize the British colony ofGeorgia.Manuel de Montiano commanded 2,000 troops, who were landed onSt Simons Islandoff the coast. General Oglethorpe rallied the local forces and defeated the Spanish regulars atBloody MarshandGully Hole Creek,forcing them to withdraw. Border clashes between the colonies of Florida and Georgia continued for the next few years, but neither Spain nor Britain undertook offensive operations on the North American mainland.

Second attack on La Guaira (2 March 1743)

Main articles:Battle of La GuairaandBattle of Puerto Cabello

CommodoreCharles Knowlesin armour, one hand gestures to fortifications and a burning ship

The British attacked several locations in the Caribbean with little consequence to the geopolitical situation in the Atlantic. The weakened British forces under Vernon launched anattack against Cuba,landing inGuantánamo Baywith a plan to march the 45 miles toSantiago de Cubaand capture the city.Vernon clashed with the army commander, and the expedition withdrew when faced with heavier Spanish opposition than expected. Vernon remained in the Caribbean until October 1742, before heading back to Britain; he was replaced by admiralChaloner Ogle,who took command of a sickly fleet. Fewer than half the sailors were fit for duty. The following year, a smaller fleet of Royal Navy led by commodoreCharles Knowlesraided the Venezuelan coast, on 2 March 1743 attacking newlyLa Guairacontrolled by RoyalGuipuzcoan Company of Caracaswhose ships had rendered great assistance to the Spanish navy during War in carrying troops, arms, stores and ammunition from Spain to her colonies, and its destruction would be a severe blow both to the Company and the Spanish Crown.

After a fierce defence by GovernorGabriel José de Zuloaga's troops, Commodore Knowles, having suffered 97 killed and 308 wounded over three days, decided to retire west before sunrise on 6 March. He decided to attack nearbyPuerto Cabello.Despite his orders to rendezvous atBorburataKeys—4 miles (6.4 km) east of Puerto Cabello—captains of the detachedBurford,Norwich,Assistance,andOtterproceeded toCuraçao.The commodore angrily followed them in. On 28 March, he sent his smaller ships to cruise off Puerto Cabello, and once his main body had been refitted, went to sea again on 31 March. He struggled against contrary winds and currents for two weeks before finally diverting to the eastern tip ofSanto Domingoby 19 April.

Merger with wider war

By mid-1742, theWar of the Austrian Successionhad broken out in Europe. Principally fought byPrussiaandAustriaover possession ofSilesia,the war soon engulfed most of the major powers of Europe, who joined two competing alliances. The scale of this new war dwarfed any of the fighting in the Americas, and drew Britain and Spain's attention back to operations on the European continent. The return of Vernon's fleet in 1742 marked the end of major offensive operations in the War of Jenkins' Ear. France entered the war in 1744, emphasizing the European theatre and planning anambitious invasion of Britain.While it ultimately failed, the threat persuaded British policymakers of the dangers of sending significant forces to the Americas which might be needed at home.

Britain did not attempt any additional attacks on Spanish possessions. In 1745,William Pepperrellof New England led a colonial expedition, supported by a British fleet under Commodore Peter Warren, against the French fortress ofLouisbourgonCape Breton Islandoff Canada. Pepperrell was knighted for his achievement, but Britain returned Louisbourg to the French by theTreaty of Aix-La-Chapellein 1748. A decade later, during theSeven Years' War(known as theFrench and Indian Warin the North American theatre), British forces underLord Jeffrey AmherstandGeneral Wolferecaptured it.

Privateering

The war involvedprivateeringby both sides.Ansoncaptured a valuableManila galleon,but this was more than offset by the numerous Spanish privateering attacks on British shipping along the transatlantictriangular traderoute. They seized hundreds of British ships, looting their goods and slaves, and operated with virtual impunity in the West Indies; they were also active in European waters. The Spanishconvoysproved almost unstoppable. During the Austrian phase of the war, the British fleet attacked poorly protected French merchantmen instead.

Lisbon negotiations

From August 1746, negotiations began in the city ofLisbon,in neutral Portugal, to try to arrange a peace settlement. The death ofPhilip V of Spainhad brought his sonFerdinand VIto the throne, and he was more willing to be conciliatory over the issues of trade. However, because of their commitments to their Austrian allies, the British were unable to agree to Spanish demands for territory in Italy and talks broke down.

Aftermath

Further information:Congress of Breda

A monument inGeorgiacommemorating theBattle of Bloody Marsh

The eventual diplomatic resolution formed part of the wider settlement of theWar of the Austrian Successionby theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapellewhich restored thestatus quo ante.British territorial and economic ambitions on the Caribbean had been repelled,while Spain, although unprepared at the start of the war, proved successful in defending its American possessions.Moreover, the war put an end to the British smuggling, and the Spanish fleet was able to dispatch three treasure convoys to Europe during the war and off-balance the British squadron at Jamaica.The issue of theasientowas not mentioned in the treaty, as its importance had lessened for both nations. The issue was finally settled by the 1750Treaty of Madridin which Britain agreed to renounce its claim to theasientoin exchange for a payment of £100,000. The South Sea Company ceased its activity, although the treaty also allowed favourable conditions for British trade withSpanish America.

George Anson's expedition to the Southeast Pacific led the Spanish authorities inLimaandSantiagoto advance the position of the Spanish Empire in the area. Forts were thus built in theJuan Fernández Islandsand theChonos Archipelagoin 1749 and 1750.

Relations between Britain and Spain improved temporarily, in subsequent years, due to a concerted effort by theDuke of Newcastleto cultivate Spain as an ally. A succession ofAnglophileministers were appointed in Spain, includingJosé de CarvajalandRicardo Wall,all of whom were on good terms with British AmbassadorBenjamin Keene,in an effort to avoid a repeat of hostilities. As a result, during the early part of theSeven Years' Warbetween Britain and France, Spain remained neutral. However, it later joined the French side and lostHavanaandManilato the British in 1762; although both were returned as part of the peace settlement, in exchange the Spanish cededFloridato the British.

The War of Jenkins' Ear is commemorated annually on the last Saturday in May atWormsloePlantation inSavannah,Georgia.

See also

• List of conflicts in British America
• Hart House (Taylor's Bridge, Delaware)

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• McLachlan, Jean Olivia (1940).Trade and Peace with Old Spain, 1667–1750: A study of the influence of commerce on Anglo-Spanish diplomacy in the first half of the eighteenth century(2015 ed.). Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1107585614.
• Morison, Samuel Eliot (1965).The Oxford History of the American People.Oxford University Press.
• Newman, Gerald; Brown, Leslie Ellen; et al., eds. (1997).Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837.Taylor & Francis.ISBN0-8153-0396-3.
• Ogelsby, J. C. M. (1970)."England vs. Spain in America, 1739–1748: the Spanish Side of the Hill".Historical Papers.5(1): 147–157.doi:10.7202/030729ar.
• Olson, James (1996).Historical Dictionary of the British Empire.Greenwood.ISBN0-313-29366-X.
• Pearce, Edward.The Great Man: Sir Robert WalpolePimlico, 2008.
• Richmond, Herbert (1920).The Navy in the War of 1739–48.War College Series (2015 ed.). War College Series.ISBN978-1296326296.
• Rodger, Brendan (2005).The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815.W. W. Norton & Company.ISBN978-0393060508.
• Rothbard, Murray (23 April 2010)."Mercantilism as the Economic Side of Absolutism".Mises.org.Retrieved27 July2019.
• Sáez Abad, Rubén (2015).Guerra del asiento o de la oreja de Jenkins 1739–1748(in Spanish). ALMENA.ISBN978-8492714094.
• Simms, Brendan (2009).Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714–1783.Penguin Books.ISBN978-0140289848.
• Shinsuke, Satsuma (2013).Britain and Colonial Maritime War in the Early Eighteenth Century.Boydell Press.ISBN978-1843838623.
• Webb, Stephen (2013).Marlborough's America.Yale University Press.ISBN978-0300178593.
• Woodfine, Philip (1998).Britannia's Glories: The Walpole Ministry and the 1739 War with Spain.Royal Historical Society.ISBN978-0861932306.

Further reading

• Finucane, Adrian.The Temptations of Trade: Britain, Spain, and the Struggle for Empire(2016)
• Gaudi, Robert (2021).The War of Jenkins' Ear: The Forgotten Struggle for North and South America, 1739–1742.New York: Pegasus Books, Ltd., distributed by Simon & Schuster.ISBN978-1-64313-819-0.OCLC1272907990.
• Norris, David A. "The War of Jenkins' Ear".History Magazine(Aug/Sep 2015) 16#3 pp. 31–35.
• Shepard,Odell & Shepard, Willard.Jenkins' Ear: A Narrative Attributed toHorace Walpole,Esq.(1951). Historical fiction.
• Rivas, Ignacio.Mobilizing Resources for War: The British and Spanish Intelligence Systems in the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739–1744)(2010).

Other resources

• Tobias Smollett."Authentic papers related to the expedition against Carthagena", by Jorge Orlando Melo inReportaje de la historia de Colombia,Bogotá: Planeta, 1989.
• Gary B. NashandJulie Roy Jeffrey.The American People: Creating a Nation and Society(8th ed., 2016).
• Quintero Saravia, Gonzalo M. (2002).Don Blas de Lezo: defensor de Cartagena de Indias.Editorial Planeta Colombiana, Bogotá, Colombia.ISBN958-42-0326-6.In Spanish.

External links

• "Proposals relating to the War in Georgia and Florida".vault.georgiaarchives.org.Military strategies to defeat the Spanish. Georgia Archives, University System of Georgia. 1740.Retrieved20 January2023.– a document suggesting strategies by which General James Oglethorpe might defeat the Spanish during the War of Jenkins' Ear