War of the Polish Succession
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| War of the Polish Succession | |||||||||
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 Siege of Danzigby Russo-Saxon forces in 1734 | |||||||||
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TheWar of the Polish Succession(Polish:Wojna o sukcesję polską;1733–35) was a major European conflict sparked by a civil war in thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealthover the succession toAugustus II the Strong,which the otherEuropean powerswidened in pursuit of their own national interests.FranceandSpain,the twoBourbonpowers, tested the power of the AustrianHabsburgsin Western Europe, as did theKingdom of Prussia,whilstSaxonyandRussiamobilized to support the eventual victor. The fighting in Poland–Lithuania resulted in the accession ofAugustus III,who in addition to Russia and Saxony, was politically supported by the Habsburgs.
The war's major military campaigns and battles occurred outside the borders of Poland–Lithuania. The Bourbons, supported byCharles Emmanuel III of Sardinia,moved against isolated Habsburg territories. In theRhineland,France successfully took theDuchy of Lorraine,and inItaly,Spain regained control over the kingdoms ofNaplesandSicilylost in theWar of the Spanish Succession,while territorial gains in northern Italy were limited despite bloody campaigning.Great Britain's unwillingness to support Habsburg Austria demonstrated the infirmity of theAnglo-Austrian Alliance.
Although a preliminary peace was reached in 1735, theTreaty of Vienna (1738)ended the war formally, which confirmed Augustus III as king of Poland and his opponentStanisław Leszczyńskiwas awarded theDuchy of LorraineandDuchy of Bar,then both fiefs of theHoly Roman Empire.Francis Stephen,the duke of Lorraine, was given theGrand Duchy of Tuscanyin compensation for losing Lorraine. TheDuchy of Parmawent toAustriawhereasCharles of Parmatook the crowns of Naples and Sicily. The Bourbons won most territorial gains, as the Duchies of Lorraine and Bar went from being the Holy Roman Empire's fiefs to those of France, while the Spanish Bourbons gained two new kingdoms: Naples and Sicily. For their part, the Austrian Habsburgs received two Italian duchies in return, though Parma would soon revert to the Bourbons. Tuscany would be held by the Habsburgs until the Napoleonic era.
The war proved disastrous for Polish–Lithuanian independence, and re-affirmed that the affairs of the Poland–Lithuania, including the election of its ruler, were controlled by the othergreat powers of Europe.After August III, there would only be one more king of Poland,Stanisław August Poniatowski,himself a Russian puppet, and ultimately Poland–Lithuania would bedivided up by its neighborsand cease to exist as a sovereign state by the end of the 18th century. Poland–Lithuania also surrendered claims toLivoniaand direct control over theDuchy of Courland and Semigallia,which, although remaining itsfief,was not integrated into it and fell under strong Russian influence that only ended with the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917.
Background
[edit]
After the death ofSigismund II Augustusin 1572, the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania was elected by theszlachta,a body composed of the Polish–Lithuanian nobility, in a specially-calledelection sejm.TheSejm,the legislative body of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, increasingly restricted royal power. In turn, the Sejm was often paralyzed by theliberum veto,the right of any member to block its decisions. The Commonwealth's neighbors often influenced the Sejm, and by the early 18th-century the democratic system was in decline.
In 1697,Augustus IIbecame king due to Austrian and Russian backing. Deposed byStanisław Leszczyńskiin 1705, he returned four years later and Stanisław fled to France, where his daughterMariemarriedLouis XVin 1725. Augustus failed in an attempt to settle the Polish crown on his son,Augustus III,leading to a contest for the throne when he died in 1733. In the secret 1732Treaty of the Three Black Eagles,Russia, Austria andPrussiaagreed to oppose the election of either Stanislaus or Augustus III and to supportManuel of Portugalinstead.[1]
The dispute coincided with the breakdown of theAnglo-French Alliancethat dominated Europe since 1714. ThePeace of Utrechtensured the separation of France and Spain despite the close relationship between Louis XV and his unclePhilip V of Spainand the two countries were opponents in theWar of the Quadruple Alliance(1718–1720). WhenCardinal Fleurybecame French chief minister in 1726, he sought a closer relationship with Spain, helped by the birth ofLouis, Dauphin of Francein 1729, which seemed to ensure that the countries would remain separate.[2]
Fleury supported Stanisław, hoping to weaken Austria and secure theDuchy of Lorraine,a strategic possession occupied by France for large parts of the previous century. The current dukeFrancis Stephenwas expected to marry Emperor Charles' heirMaria Theresa,bringing Austria dangerously close to France. Simultaneously, Philip wanted to regain the Italian territories ceded to Austria in 1714, which led to the Franco-SpanishPacte de Famillein 1733.[3]
Death of Augustus II
[edit]
Augustus II died on February 1, 1733. Throughout the spring and summer of 1733, France built up its forces along its northern and eastern frontiers, while the emperor massed troops on the Commonwealth's borders, reducing garrisons in theDuchy of Milanfor the purpose. While the agingPrince Eugene of Savoyhad recommended a more warlike posture to the emperor against potential French actions in the Rhine valley and northern Italy, only minimal steps were taken to improve imperial defenses on the Rhine.
The Marquis de Monti, France's ambassador in Warsaw, convinced the rivalPotockiandCzartoryskifamilies to unite behind Stanisław.Teodor Andrzej Potocki,Primate of Polandandinterrexfollowing Augustus' death, called aconvocation sejmin March 1733. Delegates to this sejm passed a resolution forbidding the candidacy of foreigners; this would explicitly exclude both Emmanuel of Portugal and Augustus II's son,Frederick August II,theElector of Saxony.
Frederick August negotiated agreements with Austria and Russia in July 1733. In exchange for Russian support, he agreed to give up any remaining Polish claims toLivonia,and promised toAnna of Russiaher choice of successor to theDuchy of Courland,a Polish fief (of which she had been duchess prior to her ascension to the Russian throne) which would have otherwise come under direct Polish rule on the death of the current duke,Ferdinand Kettler,who had no heirs. To the Austrian emperor he promised recognition of thePragmatic Sanction of 1713,a document designed to guarantee inheritance of the Austrian throne to Maria Theresa, Charles' oldest child.
In August, Polish nobles gathered for theelection sejm.On August 11, 30,000 Russian troops under Field MarshalPeter Lacyentered Poland in a bid to influence the sejm's decision. On September 4, France openly declared its support for Leszczyński, who was elected king by a sejm of 12,000 delegates on September 12. A group of nobles, led by Lithuanian magnates including DukeMichael Wiśniowiecki(the former Lithuanian grand chancellor nominated by Augustus II), crossed theVistulariver and the protection of Russian troops. This group, numbering about 3,000, elected Frederick August II King of Poland as Augustus III on October 5. Despite the fact that this group was a minority, Russia and Austria, intent on maintaining their influence within Poland, recognised Augustus as king.
On October 10, France declared war on Austria and Saxony. Louis XV was later joined by his uncle, KingPhilip V of Spain,who hoped to secure territories in Italy for his sons by his second marriage toElizabeth Farnese.Specifically, he hoped to secureMantuafor the elder son,Don Carlos,who was alreadyDuke of Parmaand had the expectation of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany,and the Kingdoms ofNaplesandSicilyfor the younger son,Don Felipe.The two Bourbon monarchs were also joined byCharles Emmanuel III of Sardinia,who hoped to secure gains from the Austrian duchies ofMilanand Mantua.
Austrian isolation
[edit]
When hostilities finally broke out, the Austrians had hoped for aid fromGreat Britainand theDutch Republic.Such expectations quickly dissipated as both the Dutch and the British chose to pursue a policy of neutrality. British Prime MinisterSir Robert Walpolejustified British neutrality in the conflict by noting that theAnglo-Austrian Allianceagreed at the 1731Treaty of Viennawas a purely defensive agreement, while Austria was in this instance the aggressor. This position was attacked by BritishAustrophileswho wanted to aid the Austrians against France, but Walpole's dominant position ensured that Britain stayed out of the conflict.
The Dutch under the leadership ofGrand PensionarySimon van Slingelandtmediated between the parties, but were anxious themselves to not have war on their doorstep again. The heavy toll of the previous wars against France on the Dutch economy was still in fresh memory.[4]In early 1733, it appeared that the Dutch Republic was on the verge of war with Prussia.Emperor Charles VIexerted pressure on Prussia, aiming to align the Republic with Austria. However, this attempt proved unsuccessful as the Dutch chose to remain neutral.[5]The threat of war still forced the Dutch Republic to increase the size ofits army,just at a time the Dutch had hoped to be able to reduce it appreciably.[6]The French had no wish to provoke Britain and the Dutch Republic and carefully chose not to campaign in theAustrian Netherlands,whereDutch States Armytroopsgarrisoned several fortresses,while also avoiding the parts of theHoly Roman Empirethat might draw either power into the conflict.
On Austria's southern border, France in November 1733 negotiated the secretTreaty of Turinwith Charles Emmanuel and prepared for military operations in northern Italy. It concluded the (also secret)Treaty of the Escorialwith Spain, which included promises of French assistance in the Spanish conquest of Naples and Sicily. France also made diplomatic overtures toSwedenand theOttoman Empirein a fruitless attempt to draw them into the conflict in support of Stanisław.
The Austrians were thus left largely without effective external allies on their southern and western frontiers. Their Russian and Saxon allies were occupied with the Polish campaign, and the Emperor distrustedFrederick William I of Prussia,who was willing to provide some aid. Divisions within the empire also affected the raising of troops in 1733, asCharles-Albert of Bavaria,who harbored ambitions to become the nextHoly Roman Emperor,signed a secret agreement with France in November 1733, and tried, with limited success, to dissuade other rulers within the empire from theWittelsbachfamily from providing troops to the emperor under their treaty obligations. While Britain itself did not provide support, theElectorate of Hanover,whereGeorge IIalso ruled as an Imperial Elector, proved willing to help. On 9 April 1734, aReichskrieg(imperial war) was declared against France, obliging all imperial states to participate.
War
[edit]Poland
[edit]
The Russians, commanded byPeter Lacy,quickly captured the capital city ofWarsawand installed Augustus as potential heir, forcing Stanisław to flee toDanzig(present-day Gdańsk), where he wasbesieged for some timeby a Russian-Saxon army that came under the overall command of Field MarshalBurkhard Christoph von Münnich.Danzig capitulated in June 1734, and Stanisław was forced to flee once more, this time first to the city ofKönigsbergand eventually to France. This ended major military activity in Poland itself, although it continued to be occupied by foreign troops as Augustus dealt with partisan supporters of Stanisław. A group of nobles and aristocrats supporting Stanisław formed theConfederation of Dzikówin late 1734, and under their commander,Adam Tarło,tried to fight the Russian and Saxon troops, but their efforts were ineffective. In what became known as thePacification Sejm,held in June–July 1736, Augustus was confirmed as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania.
Rhineland
[edit]Following France's October 10 declaration of war, it began military operations three days later, invading theDuchy of Lorraineandbesieging the imperial fortress at Kehl,across theRhinefromStrasbourg,gaining control of both objectives in a few weeks. Unable to attack Austria directly, and unwilling to invade the intervening German states for fear of drawing Great Britain and the Dutch into the conflict, France consolidated its position in Lorraine, and withdrew its troops across the Rhine for the winter.
The emperor mobilized his active forces in response to the French attacks, and began the process of calling up theArmy of the Holy Roman Empire,establishing a defensive line atEttlingen,nearKarlsruhe.In the spring of 1734 French maneuvers successfully flanked this line, andPrince Eugene of Savoywas forced to withdraw these forces to the imperial encampment atHeilbronn.This cleared the way for the French army under theDuke of Berwicktobesiege the imperial fort at Philippsburg,which fell after a siege of two months in July 1734. Eugene, who was accompanied by Crown PrinceFrederickofPrussia,made some attempts to relieve the siege, but never made any decisive attacks against the besieging army owing to its size and the relatively poor quality of the troops under his command. Berwick was killed by a shell at Philippsburg.
French armies continued to advance along the Rhine, reaching as far asMainz,but the growing imperial army, which came to include troops from Russia that had assisted with the capture of Danzig, was able to prevent France from establishing a siege there, and Eugene went on the offensive. A force of 30,000 underFriedrich Heinrich von Seckendorffcrossed the Rhine and began pushing the French back towardTrier,defeating thematClausenin October 1735, in one of the last battles before preliminary peace terms were reached.
Italy
[edit]
French and Savoyard troops numbering over 50,000, under the command of Charles Emmanuel, entered Milanese territory as early as October 24, against minimal resistance, as the Austrian forces in the duchy numbered only about 12,000. By November 3, the city ofMilanitself had surrendered, although the Austrian governor,Count Wirich Philipp von Daun,still held the fortress. France's great general, theDuke de Villars,joined Charles Emmanuel in Milan on November 11. While Villars wanted to move immediately againstMantuato secure the Alpine passes against Austrian reinforcements, Charles Emmanuel, mistrustful of his French allies and their dealings with Spain, sought to secure Milan. The army spent the next three months eliminating Austrian opposition from the remaining fortified towns in the duchy. Villars attempted to interest Don Carlos of Parma in joining the expedition against Mantua, but Carlos was focused on the campaign into Naples. Villars began to move against Mantua, but Charles Emmanuel resisted, and the army made little progress. In early May, an Austrian army of 40,000 underCount Claude Florimond de Mercycrossed theAlpsand threatened to close in on the French army's rear by a flanking maneuver. Villars responded by abandoning his advance on Mantua and attempted to interrupt the Austrian army's crossing of thePo.Villars, frustrated by Charles Emmanuel's delaying tactics and refusual to cooperate, quit the army on May 27. He fell ill on the way back to France and died inTurinon June 17.
Mercy's forces made repeated attempts to cross theParmariver in June, but it was not until late in that month that they were able to cross the river and approach the city ofParma,where the allied forces, now under the command of French marshalsde BroglieandCoigny,were entrenched. In theBattle of Colornoand in abloody battle near the village of Crocettaon June 29, the Austrians were beaten back, Mercy was killed, andFrederick of Württemberg,his second, was wounded. Charles Emmanuel returned the next day to retake command, and resumed his delaying tactics by failing to immediately pursue the retreating Austrians. The Austrians retreated to the Po, where they were reinforced by additional troops and placed under the command of Field MarshalKönigsegg.After two months of inaction, during which the armies faced each other across theSecchiariver, Königsegg on September 15 took advantage of lax security and executed a raid on Coigny's headquarters atQuistello,very nearly capturing Coigny and taking among other prizes Charles Emmanuel's china. Two days later the French withdrew to a position nearGuastallain response to Austrian maneuvers, but one detachment of nearly 3,000 men was surrounded and captured by the advancing Austrians. On September 19, Königseggattacked the allied position at Guastalla,and in another bloody encounter, was beaten back, losing among others Frederick of Württemberg. Königsegg retreated across the Po, adopting a defensive position between the Po and theOgliowhile Charles Emmanuel again did not capitalize on his victory. When he finally withdrew most of the allied army toCremona,the Austrians advanced on the north bank of the Po as far as theAddabefore both armies entered winter quarters in December 1734.
In southern Italy, the Austrians, choosing a strategy of defending a large number of fortresses, were soundly defeated. Don Carlos assembled an army composed primarily of Spaniards, but also including some troops from France and Savoy. Moving south through thePapal States,his army flanked the frontline Austrian defense atMignano,forcing them to retreat into the fortress atCapua.He was then practically welcomed intoNaplesby the city fathers, as the Austrian viceroy had fled towardBari,and the fortresses held by the Austrians in the city were quickly captured. While maintaining a blockade of the largest Austrian fortresses at Capua andGaeta,a large portion of the allied army gave chase to the remaining Austrian forces. These finally attempted a stand in late May, and weredefeated at Bitonto.Capua and Gaeta were then properly besieged while Austrian fortresses inSicilywere quickly subdued. Gaetasurrendered in August,and Capuaheld out until Novemberwhen its commander,Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun,finally negotiated surrender terms when he ran out of ammunition. The Jacobite pretender's heir,Charles Edward Stuart,who was under 14 then, also participated in the French and Spanish Siege of Gaeta, making his first exposure to battle.
The armies in northern Italy suffered significantly over the winter, with significant losses to disease and desertion. For the 1735 campaign the allied forces in northern Italy came under the command of theDuke de Noailles,elevated to Marshal after his successful contributions to the Rhine campaign. They were also joined by Spanish forces in May, now available after the successes in the south. In response to this threat, Königsegg retreated into theBishopric of Trent,but leaving the fortress city of Mantua well-defended. At this point divisions between the allies became clear, as Spain laid claim to Mantua, and also refused to guarantee Milan to Charles Emmanuel. In response, Charles Emmanuel refused to allow his siege equipment to be used against Mantua. As a result, the Franco-Spanish army was unable to do more than blockade the city. When Charles Emmanuel withdrew his forces from the area, the allies were forced to retreat, and the beleaguered Austrians capitalized, eventually recovering most of Milan against little opposition in November.
Peace settlement
[edit]
As early as February 1734 the British and Dutch had offered to mediate peace talks between the various parties of the conflict. By early 1735, proposals were being circulated. As 1735 progressed with the Austrians being in no real position to continue the fight, and the French concerned by the possible arrival of Russian reinforcements on the Rhine (which did eventually occur), negotiations continued through the summer of 1735.
A preliminary peace was finally concluded in October 1735 and ratified in theTreaty of Viennain November 1738. Augustus was officially confirmed as king of Poland, Stanisław was compensated with Lorraine (which would pass on his death, through his daughter, to the French), while the formerDuke of Lorraine,Francis Stephen,was made heir to theGrand Duchy of Tuscany.
Charles of Parmagave up Parma, which came under Austrian rule, but he was richly compensated by being confirmed instead as king of Naples and Sicily. Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia received territories in the western part of the Duchy of Milan west of theTicino,includingNovaraandTortona.
Although fighting stopped after the preliminary peace in 1735, the final peace settlement had to wait until the death of the lastMediciGrand Duke of Tuscany,Gian Gastonein 1737, to allow the territorial exchanges provided for by the peace settlement to go into effect.
The French (and their allies), hoping for détente and good relations with the Austrians, now also recognized the Pragmatic Sanction that would allow Emperor Charles's daughter Maria Theresa to succeed him. This proved a hollow guarantee, however, as the Frenchdecided to interveneto partition the Habsburg monarchy after all following the death of Charles in 1740. The acquisition of Lorraine for the former Polish king, however, proved of lasting benefit to France, as it passed under direct French rule with Stanisław's death in 1766.
Stanisław signed the act of abdication in 1736, while Augustus III pronounced a general amnesty.Michał Serwacy Wiśniowieckiwas lavishly rewarded: the king made him theGrand Hetman and commander-in-chief of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^Lewinski-Corwin 1917,pp. 266–268.
- ^Lodge 1931,pp. 146–147.
- ^Ward & Prothero 1909,p. 63.
- ^Van Alphen et al. 2019,p. 102.
- ^Van Nimwegen 2002,p. 67.
- ^Israel 1995,p. 993-994.
Sources
[edit]- Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 981–982.
- Lewinski-Corwin, Edward H (1917).The Political History of Poland.Polish Book Imports.
- Lodge, Richard (1931). "English Neutrality in the War of the Polish Succession".Transactions of the Royal Historical Society.14:141–173.doi:10.2307/3678511.JSTOR3678511.S2CID155803033.
- Ward, AW; Prothero, GW, eds. (1909).The Cambridge Modern History; Volume VI The 18th century.Cambridge University Press.
- Sutton, John L (1980).The King's honor & the King's Cardinal: the war of the Polish succession.University Press of Kentucky.ISBN978-0-8131-1417-0.
- Wilson, Peter Hamish (1998).German armies: war and German politics, 1648–1806.Routledge.ISBN978-1-85728-106-4.
- Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy. Kriegsarchiv (1891).Geschichte des Kämpfe Österreichs: Feldzüge des Prinzen Eugen von Savoyen: Nach den Feldacten und anderen authentischen Quellen[History of Austrian Battles: Campaigns of Prince Eugene of Savoy: from the field records and other authentic sources] (in German). Verlag des K.K. Generalstabes, in Commission bei C. Gerold's Sohn.
- Colletta, Pietro; Horner, Ann Susan (translator) (1858).History of the kingdom of Naples, 1734–1825, with a suppl, Parts 1825–1856.
{{cite book}}:|first2=has generic name (help) - Lindsay, J. O (1957).The New Cambridge Modern History.Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-04545-2.
- Pajol, Charles Pierre (1881).Les guerres sous Louis XV[The Wars of Louis XV] (in French). Paris: Librairie de Firmin-Didot et Cie. p.288.
Clausen Coigny.
- Navarro i Soriano, Ferran (2019). Harca, harca, harca! Músiques per a la recreació històrica de la Guerra de Successió (1794-1715). Editorial DENES.ISBN978-84-16473-45-8.
- Van Alphen, Marc; Hoffenaar, Jan; Lemmers, Alan; Van der Spek, Christiaan (2019).Krijgsmacht en Handelsgeest: Om het machtsevenwicht in Europa(in Dutch). Boom.ISBN978-90-244-3038-3.
- Israel, Jonathan (1995).The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477–1806.Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-873072-1.
- Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2002).De Republiek der Verenigde Nederlanden als grote mogendheid: Buitenlandse politiek en oorlogvoering in de eerste helft van de achttiende eeuw en in het bijzonder tijdens de Oostenrijkse Successieoorlog (1740–1748)(in Dutch). De Bataafsche Leeuw.ISBN90-6707-540-X.
External links
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| General and related |
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| Piast Poland |
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| Jagiellon Poland |
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| Poland partitioned | |||||||||
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| World War II in Poland |
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- War of the Polish Succession
- 1730s conflicts
- 18th-century conflicts
- Wars involving the Holy Roman Empire
- Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe
- Wars involving the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
- Military history of Italy
- Warfare of the early modern period
- Polish–Russian wars
- Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth–Russian Empire relations
- 1730s in the Holy Roman Empire
- 1730s in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth