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Warsaw Pact

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Not to be confused withWarsaw ConventionorTreaty of Warsaw.

Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance
Warsaw Pact
AbbreviationTFCMA, WP, WTO
SuccessorCollective Security Treaty Organization
Founded14 May 1955(1955-05-14)
Founded atWarsaw,Poland
Dissolved1 July 1991(1991-07-01)
HeadquartersMoscow,Russian SFSR,Soviet Union
Membership
AffiliationsCouncil for Mutual Economic Assistance

TheWarsaw Pact(WP),[d]formally theTreaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance(TFCMA),[e]was acollective defensetreaty signed inWarsaw,Poland,between theSoviet Unionand seven otherEastern Blocsocialist republicsofCentral and Eastern Europein May 1955, during theCold War.The term "Warsaw Pact" commonly refers to both the treaty itself and its resultantmilitary alliance,theWarsaw Treaty Organization[5](WTO).[f]The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to theCouncil for Mutual Economic Assistance(Comecon), the economic organization for the Eastern Bloc states.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][excessive citations]

Dominated by the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) and theWestern Bloc.[17][18]There was no direct military confrontation between the two organizations; instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and throughproxy wars.Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and their integration into the respective blocs.[18]The Warsaw Pact's largest military engagement was theWarsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia,its own member state, in August 1968 (with the participation of all pact nations exceptAlbaniaandRomania),[17]which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than one month later. The pact began to unravel with the spread of theRevolutions of 1989through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with theSolidarity movementin Poland,[19]itselectoral successin June 1989 and thePan-European Picnicin August 1989.[20]

East Germany withdrew from the pact followingGerman reunificationin 1990. On 25 February 1991, at a meeting in Hungary, the pact was declared at an end by the defense and foreign ministers of the six remaining member states. The USSR itself wasdissolved in December 1991,although most of the former Soviet republics formed theCollective Security Treaty Organizationshortly thereafter. In the following 20 years, the Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO (East Germany through its reunification with West Germany; and theCzech Republicand Slovakia as separate countries), as did theBaltic states.

History

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Beginnings

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ThePresidential PalaceinWarsaw,Poland, where the Warsaw Pact was established and signed on 14 May 1955.
Conference during which the Pact was established and signed.

Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, the Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and Poland.[13]These states protested strongly against the re-militarization ofWest Germany.[21]The Warsaw Pact was put in place as a consequence of therearming of West GermanyinsideNATO.Soviet leaders, like many European leaders on both sides of theIron Curtain,feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The consequences ofGerman militarismremained a fresh memory among the Soviets and Eastern Europeans.[7][8][22][23][24]As the Soviet Union already had anarmed presence and political dominationall over its easternsatellite statesby 1955, the pact has been long considered "superfluous",[25]and because of the rushed way in which it was conceived, NATO officials labeled it a "cardboard castle".[26]

The Iron Curtain (black line)
Warsaw Pact countries
NATOcountries (May 1982 to October 1990)
Militarilyneutral countries
Yugoslavia,member of theNon-Aligned Movement
The black dot representsWest Berlin,anenclavealigned withWest Germany.Albaniawithheld its support to the Warsaw Pact in 1961 due to theSoviet–Albanian splitand formally withdrew in 1968.

The USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, had suggested in 1954 that it join NATO, but this was rejected by the US.[27][28][29]

The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of theBerlin Conferenceof January–February 1954. Soviet foreign ministerMolotovmade proposals to haveGermany reunified[30]and elections for a pan-German government,[31]under conditions of withdrawal of thefour powers' armies and German neutrality,[32]but all were refused by the other foreign ministers,Dulles(US),Eden(UK), andBidault(France).[33]Proposals for the reunification of Germany were nothing new: earlier on 20 March 1952, talks about a German reunification, initiated by the so-called 'Stalin Note', ended after theUnited Kingdom,France,and the United States insisted that a unified Germany should not be neutral and should be free to join theEuropean Defence Community(EDC) and rearm.James Dunn(US), who met inPariswith Eden,Konrad Adenauer(West Germany), andRobert Schuman(France), affirmed that "the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians and to press on the European Defense Community".[34]According toJohn Gaddis,"there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer" from the USSR,[35]while historianRolf Steiningerasserts that Adenauer's conviction that "neutralization meanssovietization",referring to the Soviet Union's policies towards Finland known asfinlandization,was the main factor in the rejection of the Soviet proposals.[36]Adenauer also feared that German unification might have resulted in the end of the CDU's leading political role in the West German Bundestag.[37]

Consequently, Molotov, fearing that the EDC would be directed in the future against the USSR and "seeking to prevent the formation of groups of European States directed against the other European States",[38]made a proposal for a General European Treaty on Collective Security in Europe "open to all European States without regard to their social systems",[38]which would have included the unified Germany (thus rendering the EDC obsolete). But Eden, Dulles, and Bidault opposed the proposal.[39]

One month later, the proposed European Treaty was rejected not only by supporters of the EDC, but also by Western opponents of the European Defence Community (like FrenchGaullistleaderGaston Palewski) who perceived it as "unacceptable in its present form because it excludes the USA from participation in the collective security system in Europe".[40]The Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the US, UK, and France to accept the participation of the US in the proposed General European Agreement.[40]As another argument deployed against the Soviet proposal was that it was perceived by Western powers as "directed against the North Atlantic Pact and its liquidation",[40][41]the Soviets decided to declare their "readiness to examine jointly with other interested parties the question of the participation of the USSR in the North Atlantic bloc", specifying that "the admittance of the USA into the General European Agreement should not be conditional on the three Western powers agreeing to the USSR joining the North Atlantic Pact".[40] Again, all Soviet proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US, and French governments shortly after.[29][42]Emblematic was the position of British GeneralHastings Ismay,a fierce supporter ofNATO expansion.He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954[43]saying that "the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force".[44]

In April 1954, Adenauer made his first visit to the United States, meetingNixon,Eisenhower,andDulles.Ratification of the EDC was delayed but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that the EDC would have to become a part of NATO.[45]

Memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too.[8][46]On 30 August 1954, the French Parliament rejected the EDC, thus ensuring its failure[47]and blocking a major objective of US policy towards Europe: to associate West Germany militarily with the West.[48]The US Department of State started to elaborate alternatives: West Germany would be invited to join NATO or, in the case of French obstructionism, strategies to circumvent a French veto would be implemented in order to obtain German rearmament outside NATO.[49]

A typical Soviet military jeepUAZ-469,used by most countries of the Warsaw Pact

On23 October 1954,the admission of the Federal Republic of Germany to the North Atlantic Pact was finally decided. The incorporation of West Germany into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent" byHalvard Lange,Foreign Affairs Minister of Norwayat the time.[50]In November 1954, the USSR requested a new European Security Treaty,[51]in order to make a final attempt to not have a remilitarized West Germany potentially opposed to the Soviet Union, with no success.

On 14 May 1955, the USSR and seven other Eastern European countries "reaffirming their desire for the establishment of a system of European collective security based on the participation of all European states irrespective of their social and political systems"[52]established the Warsaw Pact in response to the integration of the Federal Republic of Germany into NATO,[7][9]declaring that: "a remilitarized Western Germany and the integration of the latter in the North-Atlantic bloc [...] increase the danger of another war and constitutes a threat to the national security of the peaceable states; [...] in these circumstances the peaceable European states must take the necessary measures to safeguard their security".[52]

A 1981 "Soviet Big Seven" threats poster, displaying the equipment of the militaries of the Warsaw Pact

One of the founding members,East Germany,was allowed to re-arm by the Soviet Union and theNational People's Armywas established as the armed forces of the country to counter the rearmament of West Germany.[53]

The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exactedwar reparationsfrom East Germany,Hungary,Romania,andBulgariausing Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under theMarshall Plan."[54]

In November 1956,Soviet forcesinvadedHungary,a Warsaw Pact member state, and violentlyput down the Hungarian Revolution.After that, the USSR made bilateral 20-year-treaties withPoland(17 December 1956),[55]theGDR(12 March 1957),[56]Romania(15 April 1957; Soviet forces were later removed as part ofRomania's de-satellization),[57]andHungary(27 May 1957),[58]ensuring that Soviet troops were deployed in these countries.

Members

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Meeting of the seven representatives of the Warsaw Pact countries inEast Berlinin May 1987. From left to right:Gustáv Husák(Czechoslovakia),Todor Zhivkov(Bulgaria),Erich Honecker(East Germany),Mikhail Gorbachev(Soviet Union),Nicolae Ceaușescu(Romania),Wojciech Jaruzelski(Poland), andJános Kádár(Hungary)

The founding signatories of the Pact consisted of the following communist governments:

Observers

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Mongolia:In July 1963, theMongolian People's Republicasked to join the Warsaw Pact under Article 9 of the treaty.[65]Due to the emergingSino-Soviet split,Mongolia remained in an observer status.[65]In what was the first instance of a Soviet initiative being blocked by a non-Soviet member of the Warsaw Pact, Romania blocked Mongolia's accession to the Warsaw Pact.[66][67]The Soviet government agreed to station troops in Mongolia in 1966.[68]

At first,China,North Korea,andNorth Vietnamhad observer status,[69]but China withdrew in 1961 as a consequence of theAlbanian-Soviet split,in which China backed Albania against the USSR as part of the largerSino-Soviet splitof the early 1960s.[70]

During the Cold War

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Main article:Cold War
Soviet tanks, marked with white crosses to distinguish them from Czechoslovak tanks,[71]on the streets ofPragueduring theWarsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia,1968

For 36 years,NATOand the Warsaw Pact never directly waged war against each other in Europe; the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies implemented strategic policies aimed at the containment of each other in Europe, while working and fighting for influence within the widerCold Waron the international stage. These included theKorean War,Vietnam War,Bay of Pigs invasion,Dirty War,Cambodian–Vietnamese War,and others.[72][73]

Protest in Amsterdam against thenuclear arms racebetween NATO and the Warsaw Pact, 1981

In 1956, following the declaration of theImre Nagygovernment of the withdrawal of Hungary from the Warsaw Pact,Soviet troops entered the country and removed the government.[74]Soviet forces crushed the nationwide revolt, leading to the death of an estimated 2,500 Hungarian citizens.[75]

The multi-national Communist armed forces' sole joint action was theWarsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia,another Warsaw Pact member state, in August 1968.[76]All member countries, with the exception of theSocialist Republic of Romaniaand thePeople's Republic of Albania,participated in the invasion.[77]TheGerman Democratic Republicprovided only minimal support.[77](Albania withdrew from the pact one month after this intervention.)

End of the Cold War

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ThePan-European Picnictook place on the Hungarian-Austrian border in 1989.

In 1989, popular civil and political public discontenttoppled the Communist governmentsof the Warsaw Treaty countries. The beginning of the end of the Warsaw Pact, regardless of military power, was thePan-European Picnicin August 1989. The event, which goes back to an idea byOtto von Habsburg,caused the mass exodus of GDR citizens and the media-informed population of Eastern Europe felt the loss of power of their rulers and theIron Curtainbroke down completely. Though Poland's new Solidarity government under Lech Wałęsa initially assured the Soviets that it would remain in the Pact,[78]this broke the brackets of Eastern Europe, which could no longer be held together militarily by the Warsaw Pact.[79][80][81]Independentnationalpolitics made feasible with theperestroikaand liberalglasnostpolicies revealed shortcomings and failures (i.e. of thesoviet-type economic planningmodel) and induced institutional collapse of the Communist government in the USSR in 1991.[82][better source needed]From 1989 to 1991, Communist governments were overthrown inAlbania,Poland,Hungary,Czechoslovakia,East Germany,Romania,Bulgaria,Yugoslavia,and theSoviet Union.

As the last acts of the Cold War were playing out, several Warsaw Pact states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary) participated in the US-led coalition effort to liberateKuwaitin theGulf War.

On 25 February 1991, the Warsaw Pact was declared disbanded at a meeting of defence and foreign ministers from remaining Pact countries meeting in Hungary.[83]On 1 July 1991, inPrague,the Czechoslovak PresidentVáclav Havel[84]formally ended the 1955 Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance and so disestablished the Warsaw Treaty after 36 years of military alliance with the USSR.[84][85]The USSR disestablished itself in December 1991.

Structure

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The Warsaw Treaty's organization was two-fold: the Political Consultative Committee handled political matters, and the Combined Command of Pact Armed Forces controlled the assigned multi-national forces, with headquarters inWarsaw,Poland.

Marshal of the Soviet UnionIvan Konev(left) served as the first Supreme Commander of the Pact (1955–1960) whileArmy GeneralAleksei Antonovserved as the first Chief of Combined Staff of the Pact (1955–1962).

Although an apparently similarcollective securityalliance, the Warsaw Pact differed substantially from NATO.De jure,the eight-member countries of the Warsaw Pact pledged the mutual defense of any member who would be attacked; relations among the treaty signatories were based upon mutualnon-interventionin the internal affairs of the member countries, respect fornational sovereignty,and political independence.[86]

However,de facto,the Pact was a direct reflection of the USSR's authoritarianism and undisputed domination over theEastern Bloc,in the context of the so-calledSoviet Empire,which was not comparable to that of the United States over theWestern Bloc.[87]All Warsaw Pact commanders had to be, and have been, senior officers of theSoviet Unionat the same time and appointed for an unspecified term length: theSupreme Commander of the Unified Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organization,which commanded and controlled all the military forces of the member countries, was also a First DeputyMinister of Defence of the USSR,and theChief of Combined Staff of the Unified Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organizationwas also a First DeputyChief of the General Staffof theSoviet Armed Forces.[88]On the contrary, theSecretary General of NATOandChair of the NATO Military Committeeare positions with fixedterm of officeheld on a random rotating basis by officials from all member countries through consensus.

Despite the American hegemony (mainly military and economic) over NATO, all decisions of the North Atlantic Alliance required unanimous consensus in theNorth Atlantic Counciland the entry of countries into the alliance was not subject to domination but rather a natural democratic process.[87]In the Warsaw Pact, decisions were ultimately taken by the Soviet Union alone; the countries of the Warsaw Pact were not equally able to negotiate their entry in the Pact nor the decisions taken.[87]

Although nominally a "defensive" alliance, the Pact's primary function was to safeguard theSoviet Union's hegemonyover itsEastern Europeansatellites, with the Pact's only direct military actions having been the invasions of its own member states to keep them from breaking away.[89]

Romania and Albania

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The Warsaw Pact before its 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia, showing the Soviet Union and its satellites (red) and the two independent non-Soviet members: Romania and Albania (pink)

Romania and, until 1968, Albania – were exceptions. Together with Yugoslavia, whichbroke with the Soviet Unionbefore the Warsaw Pact was created, these three countries completely rejected the Soviet doctrine formulated for the Pact. Albania officially left the organization in 1968, in protest of its invasion of Czechoslovakia. Romania had its own reasons for remaining a formal member of the Warsaw Pact, such asNicolae Ceaușescu's interest of preserving the threat of a Pact invasion so he could sell himself as a nationalist, as well as privileged access to NATO counterparts and a seat at various European forums which otherwise he would not have had (for instance, Romania and the Soviet-led remainder of the Warsaw Pact formed two distinct groups in the elaboration of theHelsinki Final Act).[90]WhenAndrei Grechkoassumed command of the Warsaw Pact, both Romania and Albania had for all practical purposes defected from the Pact. In the early 1960s, Grechko initiated programs meant to preempt Romanian doctrinal heresies from spreading to other Pact members. Romania's doctrine of territorial defense threatened the Pact's unity and cohesion. No other country succeeded in escaping from the Warsaw Pact like Romania and Albania did. For example, the mainstays of Romania's tank forces were locally developed models. Soviet troops were deployed to Romania for the last time in 1963, as part of a Warsaw Pact exercise. After 1964, the Soviet Army was barred from returning to Romania, as the country refused to take part in joint Pact exercises.[91]

A RomanianTR-85tank in December 1989 (Romania's TR-85 and TR-580 tanks were the only non-Soviet tanks in the Warsaw Pact on which restrictions were placed under the 1990CFE Treaty[92])

Even before the advent ofNicolae Ceaușescu,Romania was in fact an independent country, as opposed to the rest of the Warsaw Pact. To some extent, it was even more independent thanCuba(a communist Soviet-aligned state that was not a member of the Warsaw Pact).[1]The Romanian regime was largely impervious to Soviet political influence, and Ceaușescu was the only declared opponent ofglasnostandperestroika.On account of the contentious relationship between Bucharest and Moscow, the West did not hold the Soviet Union responsible for the policies pursued by Bucharest. This was not the case for the other countries in the region, such asCzechoslovakiaand Poland.[93]At the start of 1990, the Soviet foreign minister,Eduard Shevardnadze,implicitly confirmed the lack of Soviet influence over Ceaușescu's Romania. When asked whether it made sense for him to visit Romania less than two weeks afterits revolution,Shevardnadze insisted that only by going in person to Romania could he figure out how to "restore Soviet influence".[94]

Romania requested and obtained the complete withdrawal of the Soviet Army from its territory in 1958. The Romanian campaign for independence culminated on 22 April 1964 when the Romanian Communist Party issued a declaration proclaiming that: "Every Marxist–Leninist Party has a sovereign right...to elaborate, choose or change the forms and methods of socialist construction." and "There exists no" parent "party and" offspring "party, no" superior "and" subordinated "parties, but only the large family of communist and workers' parties having equal rights." and also "there are not and there can be no unique patterns and recipes". This amounted to a declaration of political and ideological independence from Moscow.[95][96][97][98]

The RomanianIAR-93 Vulturwas not the only combat jet designed and built by a non-Soviet member of the Warsaw Pact.[99]See also Czechoslovak jetAero L-39 Albatros.

Following Albania's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, Romania remained the only Pact member with an independent military doctrine which denied the Soviet Union use of its armed forces and avoided absolute dependence on Soviet sources of military equipment.[100]Romania was the only non-Soviet Warsaw Pact member which was not obliged to militarily defend the Soviet Union in case of an armed attack.[101]Bulgaria and Romania were the only Warsaw Pact members that did not have Soviet troops stationed on their soil.[102]In December 1964, Romania became the only Warsaw Pact member (save Albania, which would leave the Pact altogether within 4 years) from which all Soviet advisors were withdrawn, including those in the intelligence and security services.[103]Not only did Romania not participate in joint operations with the KGB, but it also set up "departments specialized in anti-KGB counterespionage".[104]

Romania was neutral in theSino-Soviet split.[105][106][107]Its neutrality in the Sino-Soviet dispute along with being the small Communist country with the most influence in global affairs enabled Romania to be recognized by the world as the "third force" of the Communist world. Romania's independence – achieved in the early 1960s through itsfreeing from its Soviet satellite status– was tolerated by Moscow because Romania was not bordering theIron Curtain– being surrounded by socialist states – and because its ruling party was not going to abandon communism.[2][108][109]

Although certain historians such as Robert King and Dennis Deletant argue against the usage of the term "independent" to describe Romania's relations with the Soviet Union, favoring "autonomy" instead on account of the country's continued membership within both the Comecon and the Warsaw Pact along with its commitment to socialism, this approach fails to explain why in July 1963 Romania blockedMongolia's accession to the Warsaw Pact, why in November 1963 Romania voted in favor of a UN resolution to establish a nuclear-free zone in Latin America when the other Soviet-aligned countries abstained, or why in 1964 Romania opposed the Soviet-proposed "strong collective riposte" against China (and these are examples solely from the 1963–1964 period).[110]Soviet disinformationtried to convince the West that Ceaușescu's empowerment was a dissimulation in connivance with Moscow.[111]To an extent this worked, as some historians came to see the hand of Moscow behind every Romanian initiative. For instance, when Romania became the only Eastern European country to maintain diplomatic relations with Israel, some historians have speculated that this was at Moscow's whim. However, this theory fails upon closer inspection.[112]Even during the Cold War, some thought that Romanian actions were done at the behest of the Soviets, but Soviet anger at said actions was "persuasively genuine". In truth, the Soviets were not beyond publicly aligning themselves with the West against the Romanians at times.[113]

Strategy

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The strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of theSoviet Unionto preventCentralandEastern Europebeing used as a base for its enemies. Its policy was also driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism and act as the leader of the global socialist movement. A corollary to this was the necessity of military intervention if a country appeared to be "violating" core socialist ideas, i.e. breaking away from theSoviet sphere of influence,explicitly stated in theBrezhnev Doctrine.[114]

Notable military exercises

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External videos
video iconCzechoslovak Military Parade "Shield-84" – Vojenská přehlídka ČSLA "Štít-84

NATO and Warsaw Pact: comparison of the two forces

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NATO and Warsaw Pact forces in Europe

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Data published by the two alliances (1988–1989)[117]
NATO estimates Warsaw Pact

estimates

Type NATO Warsaw Pact NATO Warsaw Pact
Personnel 2,213,593 3,090,000 3,660,200 3,573,100
Combat aircraft 3,977 8,250 7,130 7,876
Total strike aircraft NA NA 4,075 2,783
Helicopters 2,419 3,700 5,720 2,785
Tactical missile launchers NA NA 136 1,608
Tanks 16,424 51,500 30,690 59,470
Anti-tank weapons 18,240 44,200 18,070 11,465
Armored infantry fighting vehicles 4,153 22,400 46,900 70,330
Artillery 14,458 43,400 57,060 71,560
Other armored vehicles 35,351 71,000
Armored vehicle launch bridges 454 2,550
Air defense systems 10,309 24,400
Submarines 200 228
Submarines (nuclear powered) 76 80
Large surface ships 499 102
Aircraft-carrying ships 15 2
Aircraft-carrying ships armed with cruise missiles 274 23
Amphibious warfare ships 84 24

Post–Warsaw Pact

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Expansion ofNATObefore and after the collapse of communism throughout Central and Eastern Europe

On 12 March 1999, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland joinedNATO;Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia joined in March 2004; Croatia and Albania joined on 1 April 2009.[118][119]

The USSR's successorRussiaand some other post-Soviet states joined theCollective Security Treaty Organization(CSTO) in 1992, and theShanghai Fivein 1996, which was renamed theShanghai Cooperation Organisation(SCO) afterUzbekistan's addition in 2001.[120]

In November 2005, the Polish government opened its Warsaw Treaty archives to theInstitute of National Remembrance,which published some 1,300 declassified documents in January 2006, yet the Polish government reserved publication of 100 documents, pending their military declassification. Eventually, 30 of the reserved 100 documents were published; 70 remained secret and unpublished. Among the documents published was the Warsaw Treaty's nuclear war plan,Seven Days to the River Rhine– a short, swift invasion and capture of Austria, Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands east of the Rhine, usingnuclear weaponsafter a supposed NATO first strike.[121][122]

See also

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Explanatory notes

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  1. ^Independent permanent non-Soviet member since 1961, because of theAlbanian–Soviet split,formally withdrew in 1968.
  2. ^Formally withdrew in September 1990.
  3. ^Independent permanent non-Soviet member of the Warsaw Pact, havingfreed itself from its Soviet satellite statusby the early 1960s.[1][2]
  4. ^Russian:Варшавский пакт,romanized:Varshavsky pakt,[3]Albanian:Pakti i Varshavës,Armenian:Վարշավայի պայմանագրի կազմակերպություն,romanized:Varšavayi pazmanagri kazmakerpowt’yown,Belarusian:Варшаўскі дагавор,romanized:Varshawski dahavor,Bulgarian:Варшавският договор,romanized:Varshavskiyat dogovor,Czech:Varšavská Smlouva,Georgian:ვარშავის პაქტი,romanized:varshavis p'akt'i,German:Warschauer Pakt,Estonian:Varssavi Pakt,Hungarian:Varsói Szerződés,Kyrgyz:Варшавa келишими,romanized:Varshava kelishimi,Lithuanian:Varšuvos paktas,Latvian:Varšavas Pakts,Polish:Układ Warszawski,Romanian:Pactul de la Varșovia,Slovak:Varšavská zmluva,[4]Ukrainian:Варшавський договір,romanized:Varshavskyi dohovir
  5. ^Russian:Договор о дружбе, сотрудничестве и взаимной помощи,romanized:Dogovor o druzhbe, sotrudnichestve i vzaimnoy pomoshchi,Armenian:Վարշավայի պայմանագրի կազմակերպություն, Բարեկամության, համագործակցության և փոխադարձ օգնության պայմանագիր,romanized:Varšavayi paymanagri kazmakerpowt’yown, barekamowt’yan, hamagorcakc’owt’yan ew p’oxadarj ògnowt’yan paymanagir,Belarusian:Дагавор аб дружбе, супрацоўніцтве і ўзаемнай дапамозе,romanized:Dahavor ab druzhbye, supratsownitstvye i wzayemnay dapamozye,Bulgarian:Договор за приятелство, съдействие и взаимопомощ,romanized:Dogovor za priyatelstvo, sadeystvie i vzaimopomosht,Czech:Smlouva o Přátelství, Spolupráci a Vzájemné Pomoci,German:Vertrag über Freundschaft, Zusammenarbeit und gegenseitige Unterstützung,Georgian:მეგობრობის, თანამშრომლობისა და ურთიერთდახმარების ხელშეკრულება,romanized:megobrobis, tanamshromlobisa da urtiertdakhmarebis khelshek'ruleba,Latvian:Līguma par Draudzību, Sadarbību un Savstarpējo Palīdzību,Polish:Układ o Przyjaźni, Współpracy i Pomocy Wzajemnej,Romanian:Tratatul de Prietenie, Cooperare și Asistență Mutuală,Slovak:Zmluva o Priateľstve, Spolupráci a Vzájomnej Pomoci,Ukrainian:Договір про дружбу, співробітництво і взаємну допомогу,romanized:Dohovir pro druzhbu. spitrobititnitstvo i vzaiemnu,Uzbek:До'стлик, ҳамкорлик ва о'заро ёрдам шартномаси,romanized:Do'stlik, hamkorlik va o'zaro yordam shartnomasi
  6. ^Russian:Организация Варшавского договора(ОВД),Azerbaijani:Varşava Müqaviləsi Təşkilatı(VMT),Belarusian:Арганізацыя Варшаўскага Дагавора(АВД),Bulgarian:Организация на Варшавския договор(ОВД),Czech:Organizace Varšavské Smlouvy(OVS),German:Organisation des Warschauer Vertrags(OWV),Estonian:Varssavi Lepingu Organisatsioon(VLO),Kazakh:Варшава келісімі ұйымы,romanized:Varşava kelisimi uýımı(ВКҰ,VKU),Latvian:Varšavas Līguma Organizācija(VLO),Lithuanian:Varšuvos Sutarties Organizacija(VSO),Kyrgyz:Варшавa келишими уюму(ВКУ),Polish:Organizacja Układu Warszawskiego(OUW),Slovak:Organizácia Varšavskej Zmluvy(OVZ),Ukrainian:Організації варшавського договору(ОВД),Uzbek:Варшава шартномаси ташкилоти,romanized:Varshava shartnomasi tashkiloti(ВШТ,VShT)

References

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Citations

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