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Wilhelm Ostwald

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Wilhelm Ostwald
Ostwaldc. 1883
Born
Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald

2 September [O.S.21 August] 1853
Riga,Governorate of Livonia,Russian Empire
Died4 April 1932(1932-04-04)(aged 78)
Großbothen,Amtshauptmannschaft Grimma,Saxony,Weimar Republic
Alma materImperial University of Dorpat
Known for
Awards
Scientific career
FieldsPhysical chemistry
Institutions
Doctoral advisorCarl Schmidt
Doctoral students

Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald(German pronunciation:[ˈvɪlhɛlmˈɔstˌvalt]ⓘ;2 September [O.S.21 August] 1853 – 4 April 1932) was aBaltic Germanchemistandphilosopher.Ostwald is credited with being one of the founders of the field ofphysical chemistry,withJacobus Henricus van 't Hoff,Walther Nernst,andSvante Arrhenius.[1] He received theNobel Prize in Chemistryin 1909 for his scientific contributions to the fields ofcatalysis,chemical equilibria,andreaction velocities.[2]

Following his 1906 retirement from academic life, Ostwald became much involved in philosophy, art, and politics. He made significant contributions to each of these fields.[3]He has been described as apolymath.[4]

Early life and education[edit]

Ostwald was born ethnicallyBaltic GermaninRiga,Russian Empire(nowLatvia) tomaster-cooperGottfried Wilhelm Ostwald (1824–1903) and Elisabeth Leuckel (1824–1903). He was the middle child of three, born after Eugen (1851–1932) and before Gottfried (1855–1918).[5]Ostwald developed an interest in science as a child and conducted experiments at his home, particularly related to fireworks and photography.[4]

Ostwald entered theUniversity of Dorpat(now the University of Tartu, Estonia) in 1872. He completed hisKandidatenschriftexaminations there in 1875.[2][3]During his time at Dorpat, Ostwald had significant exposure to thehumanities,the arts, and philosophy, which became a focus of his endeavors after his 1906 retirement fromacademia.[3]

Academic career[edit]

Ostwald began his career as an independent unpaid investigator at the University of Dorpat in 1875. He worked in the laboratory ofCarl Schmidt,along with his contemporary Johann Lemberg. Lemberg taught Ostwald many of the basics of theanalysis of inorganic compoundsand measurements ofequilibriaand chemicalreaction rates.Lemberg also taught Ostwald the chemical basis of many geologic phenomena. These endeavors formed part of the subjects of Ostwald's later research efforts.[3]In addition to his work in Carl Schmidt's laboratory, Ostwald also studied in the university's physics institute withArthur von Oettingen.[2]

Around 1877, still continuing his work as an unpaid investigator in the Chemistry Laboratory at the University of Dorpat, Ostwald became a paid assistant in the Physics Institute, after Oettingen's assistant moved to Riga.[3][6] He also supported himself for a time by teaching mathematics and science at a Dorpat high school.[7]

Ostwald was deeply interested in questions ofchemical affinityand thereactionsthat formedchemical compounds.This was the central theoretical question facing chemists at the time. As part of his early work, Ostwald developed a three-dimensional affinity table that took into account the effects oftemperatureas well as the affinity constants ofacidsandbases.[3]Ostwald also investigatedmass action,electrochemistry,andchemical dynamics.[2]

Ostwald completed his Magisterial degree at the University of Dorpat in 1877, enabling him to give lectures and charge for teaching.[8] Ostwald published hisdoctoral dissertationat the University of Dorpat in 1878, with Carl Schmidt as histhesis advisor.Hisdoctoral thesiswas entitledVolumchemische und Optisch-Chemische Studien( "Volumetric and Optical-Chemical Studies" ).[4]In 1879, he became a paid assistant to Carl Schmidt.[9]

In 1881, Ostwald became aProfessor of Chemistryat theRiga Polytechnicum(now Riga Technical University). In 1887, he moved toLeipzig Universitywhere he became Professor of Physical Chemistry.[5]Ostwald remained on the faculty at Leipzig University until his retirement in 1906. He also served as the first "exchange professor" atHarvard Universityin 1904 and 1905.[2][10]

During Ostwald's academic career, he had many research students who became accomplished scientists in their own right. These included futureNobel LaureatesSvante Arrhenius,Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff,andWalther Nernst. Other students includedArthur Noyes,Willis Rodney WhitneyandKikunae Ikeda.All of these students became notable for their contributions to physical chemistry.[2][11]

In 1901,Albert Einsteinapplied for a research position in Ostwald's laboratory. This was four years before Einstein's publication onspecial relativity.Ostwald rejected Einstein's application, although later the two developed strong mutual respect.[12]Subsequently, Ostwald nominated Einstein for theNobel Prizein 1910 and again in 1913.[13]

Following his 1906 retirement, Ostwald became active in philosophy, politics, and other humanities.[2]

During the course of his academic career, Ostwald published more than 500 original research papers for thescientific literatureand approximately 45 books.[9]

Scientific contributions[edit]

Nitric acid process[edit]

Ostwald invented a process for the inexpensive manufacture ofnitric acidbyoxidationofammonia.He was awarded patents for this process.[14]Ostwald's patent made use of acatalystand described conditions under which the yield of nitric acid was near thetheoretical limit.Aspects of the basic process had also been patented some 64 years earlier byKuhlmann.[15]Kuhlmann's process did not become industrially significant, likely due to the lack of an inexpensive source of ammonia. Shortly after Ostwald's finding, inexpensive ammonia became available as a result ofHaberandBosch'sinvention of a process fornitrogen fi xingprocess(completed by 1911 or 1913) for ammonia synthesis. The combination of these two breakthroughs soon led to more economical and larger-scale production offertilizersandexplosives,of which Germany was in short supply duringWorld War I.[16][17]The process is often referred to as theOstwald Process.[17]The process remains in widespread use in contemporary times for manufacture of nitric acid.[18]

Jacobus van 't Hoff(left) and Wilhelm Ostwald

Ostwald's dilution law[edit]

Ostwald also conducted significant research on dilution theory leading to his conceptualization of thelaw of dilutionwhich at times is referred to as "Ostwald's Dilution Law". This theory holds that the behavior of aweak electrolytefollows theprinciples of mass action,being extensively dissociated at infinite dilution. This characteristic of weak electrolytes can be observed experimentally, such as byelectrochemical determinations.[19]

Catalysis[edit]

Through his research on chemical reaction rates and velocities and his studies of acids and bases, Ostwald found that the concentration of acid or the concentration of base in a solution of certain chemical reactants can have a strong influence of the rate of chemical processes. He realized that this is manifestation of the concept of chemical catalysis first articulated byBerzelius.Ostwald articulated the idea that a catalyst is a substance that accelerates the rate of a chemical reaction without being a part of either the reactants or the products. Ostwald's advances in the understanding of chemical catalysis were widely applicable in biological processes such as enzymatic catalysis and also in many industrial processes. A catalyst is used in the nitric acid process that Ostwald invented.[18]

Crystallization[edit]

Ostwald studied thecrystallizationbehavior of solids, especially those solids that are capable of crystallizing in different forms, in the phenomenon known aspolymorphism.He discovered that solids do not necessarily crystallize in their most thermodynamically stable form but instead sometimes crystallize preferentially in other forms dependent on the relative rates of crystallization of each polymorphic form. Ostwald found that the relative rates were dependent on the surface tension between the solid polymorph and the liquid form. Many common materials exhibit this type of behavior, includingmineralsand variousorganic compounds.This finding came to be known asOstwald's rule.[20]

Ostwald realized that solid or liquid solutions can continue to evolve over time. While the a non-thermodynamically preferred polymorph may crystallize first, more thermodynamically stable forms can continue to develop as the solution ages. Often this results in large crystals forming, since they are more thermodynamically stable than are large numbers of small crystals. This phenomenon came to be known as Ostwald Ripening and is observed in many situations. An everyday example is the gritty texture that ice cream develops as it ages. On ageologic timescale,manymineralsexhibit Ostwald Ripening as their crystal forms evolve as the mineral ages.[21]

Related to solubility and crystallization was Ostwald's finding that dissolution of a solid depends on the size of the crystal. When the crystals are small, typically less than amicron,the solubility of the solid in the solution phase is increased. Ostwald quantified this effect mathematically in a relationship that became known as theOstwald-Freundlich equation.Ostwald first published his finding in 1900, and his mathematical equation was refined by German chemistHerbert Freundlichin 1909. This mathematical relationship also applies to the partial pressure of substance in the system. The Ostwald-Freundlich equation takes into account the surface tension of the particle in the system, in addition to curvature and temperature. The size dependence of solubility is sometimes utilized in the formulation ofpharmaceuticalsthat have low solubility so as to enhance their uptake by the patient. The size dependence also has a role in Ostwald Ripening.[22]

Liesegang rings at Saginaw Hill, Arizona, USA

Collaborating with German chemistRaphael E. Liesegang,Ostwald recognized that substances can crystallize in a periodic fashion wherein the crystallization behavior follows a spatial or temporal pattern. In certain circumstances, the result of this periodic crystallization behavior is easily visually observed, for example, in variousgeologic formations.Liesegang had previously investigated this phenomenon in specific laboratory experiments, showing his results to Ostwald. Ostwald then developed a mathematical model for the phenomenon that served to explain the observations and realized how widespread is the periodic crystallization behavior. These observations came to be known asLiesegang rings.[23]

Atomic theory[edit]

Ostwald viscometer

Ostwald introduced the wordmoleinto thelexiconof chemistry around 1900. He defined one mole as themolecular weightof a substance in units of mass grams. The concept was linked to theideal gas,according to Ostwald. Ironically, Ostwald's development of the mole concept was directly related to his theory ofenergeticism,in philosophical opposition toatomic theory,against which he (along withErnst Mach) was one of the last holdouts. He explained in a conversation withArnold Sommerfeldthat he was convinced byJean Perrin's experiments onBrownian motion.[24][25]

In 1906 Ostwald was elected a member of theInternational Committee on Atomic Weights.As a consequence ofWorld War I,this membership ended in 1917 and was not resumed after the war. The 1917 Annual Report of the committee ended with the unusual note: "Because of the European war the Committee has had much difficulty in the way of correspondence. The German member, Professor Ostwald, has not been heard from in connection with this report. Possibly the censorship of letters, either in Germany or en route, has led to a miscarriage".[26]

Scientific measurements[edit]

As part of Ostwald's investigations in tochemical equilibria,chemical affinity,andacid-base interactions,he recognized that many establishedanalytical methodsdisturb the chemical systems under investigation. He therefore turned to physical measurements as surrogate methods to understand these important basic phenomena. One such physical measurement is the measurement of theviscosity,or resistance to flow, of a liquid. Ostwald invented a device for this purpose consisting of bulbs that act as reservoirs for a liquid with a capillary, or thin tube, in between the reservoirs. The time that it takes for the liquid to flow through the capillary from one reservoir to the other is an indication of the viscosity of the liquid. Using a reference solution, the viscosity of the liquid can be quantified. Ostwald typically used this device to study the behavior ofsolutesin water solutions. These devices came to be known asOstwald viscometersand are in widespread use in contemporary times for research andquality controlpurposes.[27]

Ostwald designed a pipette that could be used to transfer and measure liquids, especiallyserous fluids.This design was later improved byOtto Folin.This type of pipette has a bulb at the lower end as a particular design feature. It became known as theOstwald-Folin pipetteand is widely used in contemporary times.[28]

Color science[edit]

Following his 1906 retirement from academia, Ostwald became interested in the systematization ofcolors,which could be useful both scientifically and in the arts. He publishedThe Color Primerand alsoThe Color Atlasduring the period of 1916–8. These publications established relationships between the various visual colors.[4]

  • The Color Primer, page 33
    The Color Primer,
    page 33
  • The Color Primer, page 44
    The Color Primer,
    page 44
  • The Color Primer, page 50
    The Color Primer,
    page 50
  • The Color Primer, page 56
    The Color Primer,
    page 56

Ostwald represented these as a three dimensional representation ofcolor spacethat is atopological solidconsisting of two cones. One apex of the cone is pure white while the other is pure black. The eight primary colors are represented along the circumference or curved surfaces of the two cones. In this representation, each color is a mixture of white, black, and the eight primary colors. In this way, there are threedegrees of freedomthat represent each color.[29]

Ostwald color solid

This representation of colors was an important early step toward their systematization, replacing color perception by the human eye with an objective system. Over time, Ostwald's advances incolor sciencebecame part of theHSL and HSVcolor system.[29]Much of Ostwald's work on systematization of color was done in collaboration withDeutscher Werkbund,which was an association of painters and architects.[3]

Scholarly journals and societies[edit]

In 1887, Ostwald founded thepeer-reviewed scientific journalZeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie,specializing in original research in the field of physical chemistry.[7][30]He served as its editor-in-chief until 1922. In 1894, Ostwald formed the German Electrochemical Society which ultimately became the Deutsche Bunsen-Gesellschaft für angewandte physikalische Chemie [German Bunsen-Society for Applied Physical Chemistry]. He created the journalKlassiker der exakten Wissenschaftenin 1889, of which more than 250 volumes have been published.[2]

As part of his interest in philosophy, in 1902 Ostwald started the journalAnnalen der Naturphilosophie(Annales of Natural Philosophy). In 1927, he initiated the journalDie Farbe(Colour).[4]

Ostwald was one of the directors of theDie Brückeinstitute in Munich, and he played a role in its founding in 1911. The institute was sponsored, significantly, from Ostwald's Nobel Prize money. Through the institute, Ostwald's intention was to develop a standardized system for scholarly publications.[31]In 1911, Ostwald founded the Association of Chemical Societies, which sought to organize and improve the efficiency of various chemical societies. The association is an example of ascientific society.Ostwald served as the first president of the Association of Chemical Societies.[3][32]

Scholarly contributions to humanities and politics[edit]

In addition to his research in chemistry, Wilhelm Ostwald was productive in a broad range of fields. His published work, which includes numerous philosophical writings, contains about forty thousand pages. Ostwald was also engaged in thepeace movementofBerta von Suttner.[33]

Among his other interests, Ostwald was a passionate amateur painter who made his own pigments.[34]He left more than 1,000 paintings along with 3,000 pastels and color studies.[35]For Ostwald, science and the arts were mutually supportive areas of engagement.[35]

"Poetry, music and painting have given me refreshment and new courage, when exhausted by scientific work I have been obliged to lay my tools aside." –Ostwald[35]

Ostwald regarded science and the arts as having a common aim, that of "coping with the infinite diversity of appearances through the formation of appropriate concepts"[35]... Towards this aim, science builds "intellectual ideas; art constructs visual ones."[35]

Ostwald developed a strong interest incolor theoryin the later decades of his life. He wrote several publications in the field, such as hisMalerbriefe(Letters to a Painter,1904) andDie Farbenfibel(The Color Primer,1916). His work in color theory was influenced by that ofAlbert Henry Munsell,and in turn influencedPiet Mondrianand other members ofDe Stijl[36]andPaul Kleeand other members of theBauhaus school.[34]Ostwald's theories also influenced AmericansFaber BirrenandEgbert Jacobson.[35]

He was also interested in theinternational languagemovement, first learningEsperanto,then later supportingIdo.He was a member of a Committee of theDelegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language.[37][38][39]Ostwald donated half the proceedings of his 1909 Nobel prize to the Ido movement,[40]funding the Ido magazineProgresowhich he had proposed in 1908.[41]Ostwald later went on to create his own languageWeltdeutschin a period of extreme nationalism during the First World War.

One of Ostwald's continuing interests was unification through systematization. In particular, Ostwald perceived thatenergy efficiencywas a unifying theme in all facets of society and culture. In political matters, Ostwald's interest in energy efficiency extended to such political matters as the need for organization of labor.[3]

Ostwald's interest in unification through systematization led to his adaptation of the philosophy ofMonism.[42]Initially, Monism was liberal, pacifist, and international, seeking in science a basis of values to support social and political reforms. Ostwald himself developed a system of ethics based on science, around the core idea that one should "not waste energy, but convert it into its most useful form."[43][44]

in 1911, Ostwald became President of theDeutscher Monistenbund(Monist Association), founded byErnst Haeckel.[45]Ostwald (and other Monists) promotedeugenicsandeuthanasia,but only as voluntary choices with the intention of preventing suffering. Monist promotion of such ideas is suggested to have indirectly facilitated acceptance of the laterSocial Darwinismof theNational Socialists.Ostwald died before the Nazis adopted and enforced the use of eugenics and euthanasia as involuntary government policies, to support their racist ideological positions.[43][3]Ostwald's Monism also influencedCarl G. Jung's identification of psychological types.[46]

Honours and awards[edit]

Nobel Prize certificate for Wilhelm Ostwald

Ostwald was elected an International Honorary Member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1905 and an International Member of the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1906.[47][48]He received the 1909 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his contributions to understanding catalysis and for his investigations of the fundamental principles underlying chemical equilibria and reaction rates. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize 20 times beginning in 1904, and he submitted nine nominations of other scientists for the Nobel Prize following his own award. This included two nominations of Albert Einstein.[13]Ostwald donated more than US$40,000 of his Nobel Prize award money to advance the cause of the Ido language.[49]He was elected an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1912.[50]

In 1923, Ostwald was awarded theWilhelm Exner Medal,which recognized theeconomic impactof Ostwald's scientific contributions.[51]

In 1904 he was elected a foreign member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[52]He became an honorary member of scientific societies in Germany, Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Russia, Great Britain, and the United States. Ostwald received honorary doctorates from various universities in Germany, Great Britain and the United States. In 1899 he was made aGeheimratby theKing of Saxony,which by that time was a recognition of Ostwald's scholarly contributions.[2]

There is a Wilhelm Ostwald Park and Museum inGrimma, Germany,at the site of Ostwald's vacation home. This institution also houses many of Ostwald's scholarly works.[4][53]

Ostwald crater,which is on thefar side of the Earth's moon,was named in honor of Wilhelm Ostwald.[54]

Personal life[edit]

On 24 April 1880 Ostwald married Helene von Reyher (1854–1946), with whom he had five children. These were: Grete, (1882–1960) born in Riga and died inGroßbothen;Wolfgang(1883–1943) born 1883 in Riga and died inDresden;Elisabeth (1884– 1968) born in Riga and died in Großbothen; Walter (1886–1958) born in Riga and died inFreiburg im Breisgau;and Carl Otto (1890–1958) born in Leipzig and died in Leipzig. Wolfgang Ostwald became a notable scientist in the area ofcolloidchemistry.[55][56][57]

Ostwald was initiated to theScottish Rite Masonryand becameGrand Masterof the Grand Lodge "Zur Aufgehenden Sonne" inBayreuth.[58][59]

In 1887, he moved toLeipzigwhere he worked for the rest of his life. At the time of his retirement, he moved to a country estate near Groβbothen, Saxony, which he named "Landhaus Energie". He lived at the country estate for most of the remainder of his life.[8]

On his religious views, Ostwald was an atheist.[60]Ostwald died in a hospital in Leipzig on 4 April 1932,[2]and was buried at his country estate inGroßbothen,near Leipzig[61]

In fiction[edit]

Ostwald appears as a character inJoseph Skibell's 2010 novel,A Curable Romantic.[62]

He is also mentioned inItalo Svevo's 1923 novel,La coscienza di Zeno,translated asZeno's Conscience.[63]

Representative publications[edit]

Grundriss der allgemeinen Chemie,1899
  • Grundriss der allgemeinen Chemie(in German). Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1899.
  • Ostwald, W. (1906).Process of manufacturing nitric acid. Patent.
  • Ostwald, W. (1909).Energetische Grundlagen der Kulturwissenschaft(1st ed.). Leipzig: Leipzig, W. Klinkhardt.
  • Couturat, L.; Jespersen O.; Lorenz R.; Ostwald W.; Pfaundler L. (1910).International language and science: Considerations on the introduction of an international language into science.London: Constable and Company Limited.
  • Entwicklung der Elektrochemie(in French). Paris: Alcan. 1912.
  • Ostwald, W. (1917).Grundriss der allgemeinen Chemie(5th ed.). Dresden: Steinkopff.

Books[edit]

  • Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie.Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1896–1903. (2 vols.)[7]
  • Leitlinien der Chemie: 7 gemeinverständliche Vorträge aus der Geschichte der Chemie.Leipzig: Akad. Verl.-Ges., 1906.Digital editionof theUniversity and State Library Düsseldorf.
  • The Scientific foundations of analytical chemistryLondon: Macmillan, 1908.OCLC35430378
  • Colour science,London: Winsor & Newton, 1933.OCLC499690961
  • The color primer: A basic treatise on the color system of Wilhelm Ostwald,New York, N.Y.: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969.OCLC760593331
  • Electrochemistry: History and theory: Elektrochemie: Ihre Geschichte und Lehre.New Delhi: Amerind Publishing Co. 1980.OCLC702695546
  • Lebenslinien. Eine Selbstbiographie von Wilhelm Ostwald.Zweiter Teil, Leipzig 1887–1905 (3 vols). (Klasing & Co., g.m.b.H., Berlin 1927.)[30]Translated asWilhelm Ostwald: The Autobiographyby Robert Jack. Springer, 2017.[64]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  15. ^Note:
    • Frédéric Kuhlmann, "Pour la fabrication de l'acide nitrique et des nitrates," French patent no. 11,331 (filed: October 1838; issued: 22 December 1838). Supplemental patent issued: 7 June 1839. See:Description des machines et procédés consignés dans les brevets d'invention,... [Description of machines and methods recorded in the patents of invention,... ] (Paris, France: Madame Veuve Bouchard-Huzard, 1854),82:160.
    • Fréd. Kuhlmann (1838)"Note sur plusieurs réactions nouvelles déterminées par l'éponge de platine, et considérations sur les services que cette substance est appelée à rendre à la science"(Note on several new reactions caused by platinum sponge, and reflections on the services that this substance is called to render to science),Comptes rendus,7:1107–1110. From page 1109:"1°. L'ammoniaque mêlée d'air en passant à une température de 300° environ sur de l'éponge de platine, est décomposée, et l'azote qu'il renferme est complétement transformé en acide nitrique, aux dépens de l'oxigène de l'air."(1. Ammonia mixed with air, upon passing at a temperature of about 300° over platinum sponge, is decomposed and the nitrogen that it contains is completely transformed into nitric acid, at the expense of the oxygen of the air.)
    • John Graham Smith (1988) "Frédéric Kuhlmann: Pioneer of platinum as an industrial catalyst,"Platinum Metals Review,32(2): 84–90.
  16. ^Louchheim, Justin (19 November 2014)."Fertilizer History: The Haber-Bosch Process".tfi.org.The Fertilizer Institute.Retrieved16 June2020.
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  43. ^abHolt, Niles R. (April 1975). "Monists & Nazis: A Question of Scientific Responsibility".The Hastings Center Report.5(2): 37–43.doi:10.2307/3560820.JSTOR3560820.
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  45. ^Andreas W. Daum,Wissenschaftspopularisierung im 19. Jahrhundert: Bürgerliche Kultur, naturwissenschaftliche Bildung und die deutsche Öffentlichkeit, 1848–1914.Munich: Oldenbourg, 1998, pp. 218, 505.
  46. ^Noll, Richard, The Jung Cult. Princeton University Press, 1994, p. 50
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  54. ^"Ostwald".Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature.International Astronomical Union.Retrieved17 June2020.
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  57. ^Findlay, Alexander (31 December 1919)."An Introduction to Theoretical and Applied Colloid Chemistry: The World of Neglected Dimensions. By Dr. Wolfgang Ostwald, Privatdozent in the University of Leipsic. Authorised translation from the German by Dr. M. H. Fischer, Eichberg Professor of Physiology in the University of Cincinnati. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd. 1917.) Price: 11s. 6d. net".Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry.38(24): 485–486.doi:10.1002/jctb.5000382403.
  58. ^"Ostwald Wilhelm, in the" Masonic Encyclopedia "".freimaurer-wiki.de(in German).Archivedfrom the original on 6 April 2014.
  59. ^"Celebrating more than 100 years of the Freemasonry: famous Freemasons in the history".Mathawan Lodge No 192 F.A. & A.M., New Jersey.Archivedfrom the original on 10 May 2008.
  60. ^Jürgen Kocka (2010). Jürgen Kocka (ed.).Work in a Modern Society: The German Historical Experience in Comparative Perspective.Berghahn Books. p. 45.ISBN978-1-84545-575-0.Even Wilhelm Ostwald, who was the most radical atheist among these scholars, uses the instrument of the 'Monistic Sunday Sermons' to spread his ideas on rationality.
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  63. ^Svevo, Italo (2003).Zeno's Conscience.New York: Vintage Books.ISBN9780375727764.
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