Zhang Heng

For other uses, seeZhang Heng (disambiguation).

In thisChinese name,thefamily nameisZhang.

Zhang Heng
Trương hành
A stamp of Zhang Heng issued byChina Postin 1955
Born	AD 78 Nanyang,China
Died	AD 139 (aged 60–61) Luoyang,China
Known for	Seismometer,hydraulic-poweredarmillary sphere,pi calculation,poetry,universe model,lunar eclipseandsolar eclipsetheory
Scientific career
Fields	Astronomy,mathematics,seismology,hydraulic engineering,geography,ethnography,mechanical engineering,calendrical science,metaphysics,poetry,literature

Zhang Heng
Zhang's name in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters
Traditional Chinese	Trương hành
Simplified Chinese	Trương hành
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Zhāng Héng Wade–Giles Chang1Hêng2 IPA [ʈʂáŋ xə̌ŋ] Wu Suzhounese Tsãn Ghén Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Chēung Hàhng Jyutping Zoeng1Hang4 IPA [tsœŋ˥ hɐŋ˩] Southern Min HokkienPOJ Tiong Hîng Middle Chinese Middle Chinese ʈjanghæng Old Chinese Baxter–Sagart (2014) *C.tranggˤrang

Zhang Heng(Chinese:TrươngHành;AD 78–139), formerlyromanizedChang Heng,was a Chinesepolymathicscientist and statesman who lived during theHan dynasty.Educated in the capital cities ofLuoyangandChang'an,he achieved success as anastronomer,mathematician,seismologist,hydraulic engineer,inventor,geographer,cartographer,ethnographer,artist,poet,philosopher,politician, and literary scholar.

Zhang Heng began his career as a minor civil servant inNanyang.Eventually, he became Chief Astronomer, Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages, and then Palace Attendant at the imperial court. His uncompromising stance on historical and calendrical issues led to his becoming a controversial figure, preventing him from rising to the status of Grand Historian. His political rivalry with the palaceeunuchsduring the reign ofEmperor Shun(r. 125–144) led to his decision to retire from the central court to serve as an administrator ofHe gian Kingdomin present-dayHebei.Zhang returned home to Nanyang for a short time, before being recalled to serve in the capital once more in 138. He died there a year later, in 139.

Zhang applied his extensive knowledge of mechanics and gears in several of his inventions. He invented the world's firstwater-poweredarmillary sphereto assist astronomical observation;improved the inflowwater clockby adding another tank;and invented the world's firstseismoscope,which discerned thecardinal directionof anearthquake500 km (310 mi) away.He improved previous Chinese calculations forpi.In addition to documenting about 2,500 stars in his extensivestar catalog,Zhang also posited theories about theMoonand its relationship to theSun:specifically, he discussed the Moon's sphericity, its illumination by reflected sunlight on one side and thehidden natureof the other, and the nature ofsolarandlunareclipses.Hisfu(rhapsody) andshipoetry were renowned in his time and studied and analyzed by later Chinese writers. Zhang received many posthumous honors for his scholarship and ingenuity; some modern scholars have compared his work in astronomy to that of the Greco-RomanPtolemy(AD 86–161).

Life

Further information:History of the Han dynasty

Early life

Born in the town ofXi'einNanyang Commandery(north of the modernNanyang CityinHenanprovince), Zhang Heng came from a distinguished but not affluent family.His grandfather Zhang Kan (Trương kham) had been governor of acommanderyand one of the leaders who supported the restoration of theHanbyEmperor Guangwu(r. 25–57), following the death of the usurpingWang Mangof theXin(AD 9–23).When he was ten, Zhang's father died, leaving him in the care of his mother and grandmother.

An accomplished writer in his youth, Zhang left home in the year 95 to pursue his studies in thecapitalsofChang'anandLuoyang.While traveling to Luoyang, Zhang passed by ahot springnearMount Liand dedicated one of his earliestfupoemsto it.This work, entitled "Fuon the Hot Springs "(Wēnquán fùSuối nước nóng phú ), describes the throngs of people attending the hot springs, which later became famous as the "Huaqing Hot Springs",a favorite retreat of imperial concubineYang Guifeiduring theTang dynasty.After studying for some years at Luoyang'sTaixue,he was well-versed in theclassicsand friends with several notable persons, including the mathematician and calligrapherCui Yuan(78–143), the official and philosophical commentatorMa Rong(79–166), and the philosopherWang Fu(78–163).Government authorities offered Zhang appointments to several offices, including a position as one of theImperial Secretaries,yet he acted modestly and declined.

At age 23, Zhang returned home with the title "Officer of Merit in Nanyang", serving as the master of documents under the administration of GovernorBao De(in office from 103 to 111).As he was charged with composing inscriptions and dirges for the governor, he gained experience in writing official documents.As Officer of Merit in the commandery, he was also responsible for local appointments to office and recommendations to the capital of nominees for higher office.He spent much of his time composingrhapsodieson the capital cities. When Bao De was recalled to the capital in 111 to serve as a minister of finance, Zhang continued his literary work at home in Xi'e.Zhang Heng began his studies in astronomy at the age of 30 and began publishing his works onastronomyandmathematics.

Official career

Further information:Government of the Han dynasty

In 112, Zhang was summoned to the court ofEmperor An(r. 106–125), who had heard of his expertise in mathematics.When he was nominated to serve at the capital, Zhang was escorted by carriage—a symbol of his official status—to Luoyang, where he became a court gentleman working for theImperial Secretariat.He was promoted to Chief Astronomer for the court, serving his first term from 115 to 120 under Emperor An and his second under the succeeding emperor from 126 to 132.As Chief Astronomer, Zhang was a subordinate of the Minister of Ceremonies, one ofNine Ministersranked just below the Three Excellencies.In addition to recording heavenly observations and portents, preparing the calendar, and reporting which days were auspicious and which ill-omened, Zhang was also in charge of an advanced literacy test for all candidates to the Imperial Secretariat and theCensorate,both of whose members were required to know at least 9,000charactersand all major writing styles.Under Emperor An, Zhang also served as Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages under the Ministry of Guards, in charge of receivingmemorials to the throne(formal essays on policy and administration) as well as nominees for official appointments.

Left:ceramic statuesof horse-drawnchariotsfrom the tomb of the wife of Liu Xu (Lưu tư), Prince Li of Guangling (Quảng Lăng lệ vương), a son ofEmperor Wu of Hanwho committed suicide 53 BC;right:aWestern Hanterracottacavalier figurine wearing robes and a hat; as Chief Astronomer, Zhang Heng earned a fixed salary and rank of 600 bushels of grain (which was mostly commuted to payments incoinage currencyor bolts ofsilk), and so he would have worn a specified type of robe, ridden in a specified type of carriage, and held a unique emblem that marked his status in the official hierarchy.

When the government official Dan Song proposed theChinese calendarshould be reformed in 123 to adopt certainapocryphal teachings,Zhang opposed the idea. He considered the teachings to be of questionable stature and believed they could introduce errors.Others shared Zhang's opinion and the calendar was not altered, yet Zhang's proposal that apocryphal writings should be banned was rejected.The officials Liu Zhen and Liu Taotu, members of a committee to compile the dynastic historyDongguan Hanji(Đông xem hán nhớ), sought permission from the court to consult Zhang Heng.However, Zhang was barred from assisting the committee due to his controversial views on apocrypha and his objection to the relegation of theGengshi Emperor's (r. 23–25) role in the restoration of the Han dynasty as lesser than Emperor Guangwu's.Liu Zhen and Liu Taotu were Zhang's only historian allies at court, and after their deaths Zhang had no further opportunities for promotion to the prestigious post of court historian.

Despite this setback in his official career, Zhang was reappointed as Chief Astronomer in 126 afterEmperor Shun of Han(r. 125–144) ascended to the throne.His intensive astronomical work was rewarded only with the rank and salary of 600 bushels, orshi,of grain (mostly commuted tocoin cashor bolts ofsilk).To place this number in context, in a hierarchy of twenty official ranks, the lowest-paid official earned the rank and salary of 100 bushels and the highest-paid official earned 10,000 bushels during the Han.The 600-bushel rank was the lowest the emperor could directly appoint to a central government position; any official of lower status was overseen by central or provincial officials of high rank.

In 132, Zhang introduced an intricate seismoscope to the court, which he claimed could detect the precise cardinal direction of a distantearthquake.On one occasion his device indicated that an earthquake had occurred in the northwest. As there was no perceivable tremor felt in the capital his political enemies were briefly able to relish the failure of his device,until a messenger arrived shortly afterwards to report that an earthquake had occurred about 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang inGansuprovince.

A potteryminiatureof a palacemade during the Han dynasty; as a palace attendant, Zhang Heng had personal access to Emperor Shun and the right to escort him

A year after Zhang presented his seismoscope to the court, officials and candidates were asked to provide comments about a series of recent earthquakes which could be interpreted as signs of displeasure from Heaven.The ancient Chinese viewed natural calamities as cosmological punishments for misdeeds that were perpetrated by the Chinese ruler or his subordinates on earth. In Zhang'smemorialdiscussing the reasons behind these natural disasters, he criticized the new recruitment system of Zuo Xiong which fixed the age of eligible candidates for the title "Filial and Incorrupt"at age forty.The new system also transferred the power of the candidates' assessment to the Three Excellencies rather than the Generals of the Household, who by tradition oversaw the affairs of court gentlemen.Although Zhang's memorial was rejected, his status was significantly elevated soon after to Palace Attendant, a position he used to influence the decisions of Emperor Shun.With this prestigious new position, Zhang earned a salary of 2,000 bushels and had the right to escort the emperor.

As Palace Attendant to Emperor Shun, Zhang Heng attempted to convince him that the courteunuchsrepresented a threat to the imperial court. Zhang pointed to specific examples of past court intrigues involving eunuchs, and convinced Shun that he should assume greater authority and limit their influence.The eunuchs attempted to slander Zhang, who responded with afurhapsody called "Fuon Pondering the Mystery ", which vents his frustration.Rafe de Crespignystates that Zhang's rhapsody used imagery similar toQu Yuan's (340–278 BC) poem "Li Sao"and focused on whether or not good men should flee the corrupted world or remain virtuous within it.

Eastern Han tomb brick depicting the courtyard of a wealthy family's home. Zhang enjoyed a short period of retirement at his home in Xi'e, Nanyang, before being called back to the capital, where he died in 139.

Literature and poetry

Further information:Chinese literatureandSociety and culture of the Han dynasty

An Eastern Hanearthenwarefigurine of theQueen Mother of the West.Zhang fantasized about her in his "Rhapsody on Contemplating the Mystery" (Tư huyền phú), yet the pleasures of the flesh andimmortalitythat she could offer were not tempting enough to sway his heart which was set elsewhere.

While working for the central court, Zhang Heng had access to a variety of written materials located in the Archives of the Eastern Pavilion.Zhang read many of the great works of history in his day and claimed he had found ten instances where theRecords of the Grand HistorianbySima Qian(145–90 BC) and theBook of HanbyBan Gu(AD 32–92) differed from other ancient texts that were available to him.His account was preserved and recorded in the 5th-century text of theBook of Later HanbyFan Ye(398–445).Hisrhapsodiesand other literary works displayed a deep knowledge of classic texts,Chinese philosophy,andhistories.He also compiled a commentary on theTaixuan(Quá huyền,"Great Mystery" ) by theDaoistauthorYang Xiong(53 BC–AD 18).

Xiao Tong(501–531), acrown princeof theLiang dynasty(502–557), immortalized several of Zhang's works in his literary anthologySelections of Refined Literature.Zhang'sfurhapsodiesinclude "Western Metropolis Rhapsody" (Xī jīng fùTây kinh phú), "Eastern Metropolis Rhapsody" (Dōng jīng fùĐông Kinh phú), "Southern Capital Rhapsody" (Nán dū fùNam đều phú), "Rhapsody on Contemplating the Mystery" (Sī xuán fùTư huyền phú), andReturn to the Field.The latter fusesDaoistideas withConfucianismand was a precursor to later Chinese metaphysical nature poetry, according to Liu Wu-chi.A set of four short lyric poems entitledLyric Poems on Four Sorrows(Sì chóu shīBốn sầu thơ), is also included with Zhang's preface. This set constitutes some of the earliest heptasyllabicshiChinese poetrywritten.While still in Luoyang, Zhang became inspired to write his "Western Metropolis Rhapsody" and "Eastern Metropolis Rhapsody", which were based on the "Rhapsody on the Two Capitals" by the historian Ban Gu.Zhang's work was similar to Ban's, although the latter fully praised the contemporaneous Eastern Han regime while Zhang provided a warning that it could suffer the same fate as the Western Han if it too declined into a state of decadence and moral depravity.These two works satirized and criticized what he saw as the excessive luxury of the upper classes.Zhang's "Southern Capital Rhapsody" commemorated his home city of Nanyang, home of the restorer of the Han dynasty, Guangwu.

In Zhang Heng's poem "Four Sorrows", he laments that he is unable to woo a beautiful woman due to the impediment of mountains, snows and rivers.Scholars Rafe de Crespigny and David R. Knechtges claim that Zhang wrote this as an innuendo hinting at his inability to keep in contact with the emperor, hindered by unworthy rivals and petty men.This poem is one of the first in China to have seven words per line.His "Four Sorrows" reads:

A Western Hanterracottafigurine of a serving lady and Han ceramic figures of women. In his poetry, Zhang Heng expressed his affinity for gracious and commendable women. As well as being a painter, Zhang also crafted figurine sculptures similar to this one.

Ta sở tư hề ở quá sơn
Dục hướng từ chi lương phụ gian
Nghiêng người đông vọng nước mắt dính hàn
Mỹ nhân tặng ta Kim Thác Đao
Hà dĩ báo chi Anh Quỳnh Dao
Đường xa mạc trí ỷ tiêu dao
Gì vi hoài lo lắng làm phiền

In Taishan stays my dear sweetheart,
But Liangfu keeps us long apart;
Looking east, I find tears start.
She gives me a sword to my delight;
A jade I give her as requite.
I'm at a loss as she is out of sight;
Why should I trouble myself all night?

In another poem of his called "Stabilizing the Passions" (Dìng qíng fùĐính ước phú )—preserved in aTang dynasty(618–907) encyclopedia, but referred to earlier byTao Qian(365–427) in praise of Zhang's lyrical minimalism—Zhang displays his admiration for an attractive and exemplary woman.This simpler type offupoem influenced later works by the prominent official and scholarCai Yong(132–192).Zhang wrote:

Phu gì yêu nữ chi thục lệ
Quang hoa diễm mà tú dung
Đoạn lúc ấy mà trình mỹ
Quan bằng thất mà vô song

Ah, the chaste beauty of this alluring woman!
She shines with flowery charms and blooming face.
She is unique among all her contemporaries.
She is without a peer among her comrades.

Eastern Han tomb models of watchtowers; the one on the left has crossbowmen in the top balcony. Zhang wrote that Western Han emperors were entertained by displays of archery from the balconies of towers along Chang'an's Kunming Lake.

Zhang's long lyrical poems also revealed a great amount of information on urban layout and basic geography. His rhapsody "Sir Based-On-Nothing" provides details on terrain, palaces, hunting parks, markets, and prominent buildings ofChang'an,the Western Han capital.Exemplifying his attention to detail, his rhapsody on Nanyang described gardens filled with spring garlic, summerbamboo shoots,autumn leeks, winter rape-turnips,perilla,evodia,and purple ginger.Along withSima Xiangru(179–117 BC), Zhang listed a variety of animals and hunting game inhabiting the park, which were divided in the northern and southern portions of the park according to where the animals had originally come from:northern or southern China.Somewhat similar to the description of Sima Xiangru, Zhang described the Western Han emperors and their entourage enjoying boat outings, water plays, fishing, and displays of archery targeting birds and other animals with stringed arrows from the tops oftall towersalong Chang'an's Kunming Lake.The focus of Zhang's writing on specific places and their terrain, society, people, and their customs could also be seen as early attempts ofethnographiccategorization.In his poem "Xijing fu", Zhang shows that he was aware of the new foreign religion ofBuddhism,introduced via theSilk Road,as well as the legend of the birth ofBuddhawith the vision of thewhite elephantbringing about conception.In his "Western Metropolis Rhapsody" (Tây kinh phú), Zhang described court entertainments such asjuedi(Giác để), a form of theatrical wrestling accompanied by music in which participants butted heads with bull horn masks.

Eastern Han tomb painting of two men engrossed in conversation; Zhang'sshelunor hypothetical discourse, involved a written dialogue between imaginary or real persons to demonstrate how one could lead an exemplary life

With his "Responding to Criticism" (Ying gianỨng gian), a work modeled onYang Xiong's"Justification Against Ridicule",Zhang was an early writer and proponent of the Chinese literary genreshelun,or hypothetical discourse. Authors of this genre created a written dialogue between themselves and an imaginary person (or a real person of their entourage or association); the latter poses questions to the author on how to lead a successful life.He also used it as a means to criticize himself for failing to obtain high office, but coming to the conclusion that the true gentleman displays virtue instead of greed for power.In this work, Dominik Declercq asserts that the person urging Zhang to advance his career in a time of government corruption most likely represented the eunuchs orEmpress Liang's (116–150) powerful relatives in theLiang clan.Declercq states that these two groups would have been "anxious to know whether this famous scholar could be lured over to their side", but Zhang flatly rejected such an alignment by declaring in this politically charged piece of literature that his gentlemanly quest for virtue trumped any desire of his for power.

Zhang wrote about the various love affairs of emperors dissatisfied with the imperial harem, going out into the city incognito to seek out prostitutes and sing-song girls. This was seen as a general criticism of the Eastern Han emperors and their imperial favorites, guised in the criticism of earlier Western Han emperors.Besides criticizing the Western Han emperors for lavish decadence, Zhang also pointed out that their behavior and ceremonies did not properly conform with the Chinese cyclical beliefs inyin and yang.In a poem criticizing the previous Western Han dynasty, Zhang wrote:

Đến chi giả cường,
Theo chi giả lâu.
Lưu lâu là khó kiệt,
Để thâm tắc khó hủ.
Cố xa thái tứ tình,
Hinh liệt di mậu.

Those who won this territory were strong;
Those who depended on it endured.
When a stream is long, its water is not easily exhausted.
When roots are deep, they do not rot easily.
Therefore, as extravagance and ostentation were given free rein,
The odor became pungent and increasingly fulsome.

A lateEastern Han(25–220 AD)Chinese tomb muralshowing lively scenes of a banquet (yànyǐnYến tiệc), dance and music (wǔyuèVũ nhạc), acrobatics (bǎixìTạp kỹ), and wrestling (xiāngbūĐô vật),from the Dahuting Tomb,on the southern bank of theSuihe RiverinZhengzhou,Henan province,China (just west ofXi County)

Achievements in science and technology

Further information:Science and technology of the Han dynasty

Mathematics

See also:Chronology of computation of π,Chinese mathematics,andHistory of geometry § Chinese geometry

For centuries the Chinese approximatedpias 3;Liu Xin(d. CE 23) made the first known Chinese attempt at a more accurate calculation of 3.154, but there is no record detailing the method he used to obtain this figure.In his work around 130,Zhang Heng compared the celestial circle to the diameter of the earth, proportioning the former as 736 and the latter as 232, thus calculating pi as 3.1724.In Zhang's day, the ratio 4:3 was given for the area of a square to the area of its inscribed circle and the volume of a cube and volume of the inscribed sphere should also be 4²:3².In formula, with D as diameter and V as volume, D³:V = 16:9 or V=${\tfrac {9}{16}}$D³;Zhang realized that the value for diameter in this formula was inaccurate, noting the discrepancy as the value taken for the ratio.Zhang then attempted to remedy this by amending the formula with an additional${\tfrac {1}{16}}$D³,hence V=${\tfrac {9}{16}}$D³+${\tfrac {1}{16}}$D³=${\tfrac {5}{8}}$D³.With the ratio of thevolumeof the cube to the inscribed sphere at 8:5, the implied ratio of the area of the square to the circle is √8:√5.From this formula, Zhang calculated pi as thesquare rootof 10 (or approximately 3.162).In the 3rd century,Liu Huimade the calculation more accurate with hisπ algorithm,which allowed him to obtain the value 3.14159.Later,Zu Chongzhi(429–500)approximated pias${\tfrac {355}{113}}$or 3.141592, the most accurate calculation for pi the ancient Chinese would achieve.

Astronomy

See also:Chinese astronomy

Printedstar mapofSu Song(1020–1101) showing the south polar projection

A Western Han dynasty Chinesesilkbanner from a 2nd-century BC tomb atMawangdui;this funerary banner shows a sliver Moon in the top left and the Sun in the top right, both with their cosmological representations of the toad and raven, respectively.

In his publication of AD 120 calledThe Spiritual Constitution of the Universe( linh hiến,Ling Xian,lit. "Sublime Model" ),Zhang Heng theorized that the universe was like an egg "as round as acrossbowpellet "with the stars on the shell and the Earth as the central yolk.This universe theory is congruent with thegeocentric modelas opposed to theheliocentric model.Although the ancientWarring States(403–221 BC) Chinese astronomersShi ShenandGan Dehad compiled China's firststar cataloguein the 4th century BC, Zhang nonetheless catalogued 2,500 stars which he placed in a "brightly shining" category (the Chinese estimated the total to be 14,000), and he recognized 124 constellations.In comparison, this star catalogue featured many more stars than the 850 documented by the Greek astronomerHipparchus(c. 190– c. 120 BC) in his catalogue, and more thanPtolemy(AD 83–161), who catalogued over 1,000.Zhang supported the "radiating influence" theory to explainsolarandlunareclipses, a theory which was opposed byWang Chong(AD 27–97).In theLing Xian,Zhang wrote:

Phu ngày thí hãy còn hỏa, nguyệt thí hãy còn thủy, hỏa tắc ngoại quang, thủy tắc hàm cảnh. Cố ánh trăng sinh với ngày chỗ chiếu, phách sinh với ngày chỗ tế, ngày đó tắc quang doanh, liền ngày tắc quang tẫn cũng.
The Sun is like fire and the Moon like water. The fire gives out light and the water reflects it. Thus the Moon's brightness is produced from the radiance of the Sun, and the Moon's darkness is due to (the light of) the Sun being obstructed. The side which faces the Sun is fully lit, and the side which is away from it is dark.

Chúng tinh bị diệu, nhân thủy chuyển quang. Ngày đó chi hướng, quang thường không hợp giả, tế với mà cũng. Là gọi ám hư. Ở ngôi sao hơi, nguyệt quá tắc thực.
The planets (as well as the Moon) have the nature of water and reflect light. The light pouring forth from the Sun does not always reach the Moon owing to the obstruction of the Earth itself—this is called "ànxū",a lunar eclipse. When (a similar effect) happens with a planet (we call it) an occultation; when the Moon passes across (the Sun's path) then there is a solar eclipse.

— Zhang Heng (AD 120),Sublime Model(Joseph Needham,trans.)

Zhang Heng viewed these astronomical phenomena in supernatural terms as well. The signs of comets, eclipses, and movements of heavenly bodies could all be interpreted by him as heavenly guides on how to conduct affairs of state.Contemporary writers also wrote about eclipses and the sphericity of heavenly bodies. Themusic theoristand mathematicianJing Fang(78–37 BC) wrote about the spherical shape of the Sun and Moon while discussing eclipses:

The Moon and the planets are Yin; they have shape but no light. This they receive only when the Sun illuminates them. The former masters regarded the Sun as round like a crossbow bullet, and they thought the Moon had the nature of a mirror. Some of them recognized the Moon as a ball too. Those parts of the Moon which the Sun illuminates look bright, those parts which it does not, remain dark.

The theory posited by Zhang and Jing was supported by later pre-modern scientists such asShen Kuo(1031–1095), who expanded on the reasoning of why the Sun and Moon were spherical.The theory of thecelestial spheresurrounding aflat, square Earthwas later criticized by theJin-dynastyscholar-officialYu Xi(fl. 307–345). He suggested that the Earth could be round like the heavens, aspherical Earththeory fully accepted by mathematicianLi Ye(1192–1279) but not by mainstream Chinese science untilEuropean influencein the 17th century.

Extra tank for inflow clepsydra

Han dynasty paintings ontile;being conscious of time, the Chinese believed inguardian spiritsfor the divisions of day and night, such as these two guardians here representing 11 pm to 1 am (left) and 5 am to 7 am (right)

The outflowclepsydrawas a timekeeping device used in China as long ago as theShang dynasty(c. 1600–c. 1050 BC), and certainly by theZhou dynasty(1122–256 BC).The inflow clepsydra with an indicator rod on a float had been known in China since the beginning of the Han dynasty in 202 BC and had replaced the outflow type.TheHan Chinesenoted the problem with the fallingpressure headin the reservoir, which slowed the timekeeping of the device as the inflow vessel was filled.Zhang Heng was the first to address this problem, indicated in his writings from 117, by adding an extra compensating tank between the reservoir and the inflow vessel.Zhang also mounted two statuettes of a Chinese immortal and a heavenly guard on the top of the inflow clepsydra, the two of which would guide the indicator rod with their left hand and point out the graduations with their right.Joseph Needham states that this was perhaps the ancestor of allclock jacks that would later sound the hoursfound in mechanical clocks by the 8th century, but he notes that these figures did not actually move like clock jack figurines or sound the hours.Many additional compensation tanks were added to later clepsydras in the tradition of Zhang Heng. In 610 theSui dynasty(581–618) engineers Geng Xun and Yuwen Kai crafted an unequal-armedsteelyard balanceable to make seasonal adjustments in the pressure head of the compensating tank, so that it could control the rate of water flow for different lengths of day and night during the year.Zhang mentioned a "jade dragon's neck", which in later times meant a siphon.He wrote of the floats and indicator-rods of the inflow clepsydra as follows:

Lấy đồng vì khí, lại điệp kém trí, thật lấy nước trong, hạ các khai khổng, lấy ngọc cầu phun lậu thủy nhập hai hồ. Hữu vì đêm, tả vì ngày.
Bronze vessels are made and placed one above the other at different levels; they are filled with pure water. Each has at the bottom a small opening in the form of a 'jade dragon's neck'. The water dripping (from above) enters two inflow receivers (alternately), the left one being for the night and the right one for the day.

Đắp lên lại đúc kim đồng tiên nhân, cư tả hồ; vì tư đồ, cư hữu hồ. Toàn lấy tay trái ôm mũi tên, tay phải chỉ khắc, lấy đừng thiên thời sớm muộn gì.
On the covers of each (inflow receiver) there are small cast statuettes in gilt bronze; the left (night) one is an immortal and the right (day) one is a policeman. These figures guide the indicator-rod (lit. arrow) with their left hands, and indicate the graduations on it with their right hands, thus giving the time.

Water-powered armillary sphere

The original diagram ofSu Song's (1020–1101)clock tower,featuring anarmillary spherepowered by awaterwheel,escapementmechanism, andchain drive

Zhang Heng is the first person known to have applied hydraulicmotive power(i.e. by employing awaterwheelandclepsydra) to rotate anarmillary sphere,an astronomical instrument representing thecelestial sphere.The Greek astronomerEratosthenes(276–194 BC) invented the first armillary sphere in 255 BC. The Chinese armillary sphere was fully developed by 52 BC, with the astronomer Geng Shouchang's ( cảnh thọ xương ) addition of a permanently fixedequatorial ring.In AD 84 the astronomers Fu An andJia Kuiadded the ecliptic ring, and finally Zhang Heng added thehorizon and meridian rings.This invention is described and attributed to Zhang in quotations by Hsu Chen and Li Shan, referencing his bookLou Shui Chuan Hun Thien I Chieh(Apparatus for Rotating an Armillary Sphere by Clepsydra Water). It was likely not an actual book by Zhang, but a chapter from hisHun IorHun I Thu Chu,written in 117 AD.His water-powered armillary influenced the design of later Chinese water clocks and led to the discovery of theescapementmechanism by the 8th century.The historianJoseph Needham(1900–1995) states:

What were the factors leading to the first escapement clock in China? The chief tradition leading to Yi Xing (AD 725 ) was of course the succession of 'pre-clocks' which had started with Zhang Heng about 125. Reason has been given for believing that these applied power to the slow turning movement of computational armillary spheres and celestial globes by means of a water-wheel using clepsydra drip, which intermittently exerted the force of a lug to act on the teeth of a wheel on a polar-axis shaft. Zhang Heng in his turn had composed this arrangement by uniting the armillary rings of his predecessors into the equatorial armillary sphere, and combining it with the principles of the water-mills and hydraulic trip-hammers which had become so widespread in Chinese culture in the previous century.

Zhang did not initiate the Chinese tradition ofhydraulic engineering,which began during the mid Zhou dynasty (c. 6th century BC), through the work of engineers such asSunshu AoandXimen Bao.Zhang's contemporary,Du Shi,(d. AD 38) was the first to apply the motive power of waterwheels to operate thebellowsof ablast furnaceto makepig iron,and thecupola furnaceto makecast iron.Zhang provided a valuable description of his water-powered armillary sphere in the treatise of 125, stating:

The equatorial ring goes around the belly of the armillary sphere 91 and 5/19 (degrees) away from the pole. The circle of the ecliptic also goes round the belly of the instrument at an angle of 24 (degrees) with the equator. Thus at the summer solstice the ecliptic is 67 (degrees) and a fraction away from the pole, while at the winter solstice it is 115 (degrees) and a fraction away. Hence (the points) where the ecliptic and the equator intersect should give the north polar distances of the spring and autumn equinoxes. But now (it has been recorded that) the spring equinox is 90 and 1/4 (degrees) away from the pole, and the autumn equinox is 92 and 1/4 (degrees) away. The former figure is adopted only because it agrees with the (results obtained by the) method of measuring solstitial sun shadows as embodied in the Xia (dynasty) calendar.

Zhang Heng's water-powered armillary sphere had profound effects on Chinese astronomy and mechanical engineering in later generations. His model and its complex use of gears greatly influenced the water-powered instruments of later astronomers such asYi Xing(683–727),Zhang Sixun(fl. 10th century),Su Song(1020–1101),Guo Shoujing(1231–1316), and many others. Water-powered armillary spheres in the tradition of Zhang Heng's were used in the eras of theThree Kingdoms(220–280) andJin dynasty (266–420),yet the design for it was temporarily out of use between 317 and 418, due to invasions of northernXiongnunomads.Zhang Heng's old instruments were recovered in 418, whenEmperor Wu of Liu Song(r. 420–422) captured the ancient capital of Chang'an. Although still intact, the graduation marks and the representations of the stars, Moon, Sun, and planets were quite worn down by time and rust.In 436, the emperor ordered Qian Luozhi, the Secretary of the Bureau of Astronomy and Calendar, to recreate Zhang's device, which he managed to do successfully.Qian's water-powered celestial globe was still in use at the time of the Liang dynasty (502–557), and successive models of water-powered armillary spheres were designed in subsequent dynasties.

Zhang's seismoscope

A replica of Zhang Heng's seismoscope, theHoufeng didong yi,featured in theChabot Space & Science Centerin Oakland, California

From the earliest times, the Chinese were concerned with the destructive force of earthquakes. It was recorded in Sima Qian'sRecords of the Grand Historianof 91 BC that in 780 BC an earthquake had been powerful enough to divert the courses of three rivers.It was not known at the time that earthquakes were caused by the shifting oftectonic platesin the Earth's crust; instead, the people of the ancient Zhou dynasty explained them as disturbances with cosmicyin and yang,along with the heavens' displeasure with acts committed (or the common peoples' grievances ignored) by the current ruling dynasty.These theories were ultimately derived from the ancient text of theYijing,in its fifty-first hexagram.There were other early theories about earthquakes, developed by those such as theancient Greeks.Anaxagoras(c. 500–428 BC) believed that they were caused by excess water near the surface crust of the earth bursting into the Earth's hollows;Democritus(c. 460–370 BC) believed that the saturation of the Earth with water caused them;Anaximenes(c. 585–c. 525 BC) believed they were the result of massive pieces of the Earth falling into the cavernous hollows due to drying; andAristotle(384–322 BC) believed they were caused by instability of vapor (pneuma) caused by the drying of the moist Earth by the Sun's rays.

During the Han dynasty, many learned scholars—including Zhang Heng—believed in the "oraclesof the winds ".These oracles of the occult observed the direction, force, and timing of the winds, to speculate about the operation of the cosmos and to predict events on Earth.These ideas influenced Zhang Heng's views on the cause of earthquakes.

In 132, Zhang Heng presented to the Han court what many historians consider to be his most impressive invention, the first seismoscope. A seismoscope records the motions of Earth's shaking, but unlike a seismometer, it does not retain a time record of those motions.It was named "earthquake weathervane" (hòufēng dìdòngyíMáy đo địa chấn),and it was able to roughly determine the direction (out of eight directions) where the earthquake came from.According to theBook of Later Han(compiled byFan Yein the 5th century), his bronze urn-shaped device, with a swinging pendulum inside, was able to detect the direction of an earthquake hundreds of miles/kilometers away.This was essential for the Han government in sending quick aid and relief to regions devastated by this type of natural disaster.TheBook of Later Hanrecords that, on one occasion, Zhang's device was triggered, though no observer had felt any seismic disturbance; several days later a messenger arrived from the west and reported that an earthquake had occurred in Longxi (modernGansu Province), the same direction that Zhang's device had indicated, and thus the court was forced to admit the efficacy of the device.

To indicate the direction of a distant earthquake, Zhang's device dropped a bronze ball from one of eight tubed projections shaped as dragon heads; the ball fell into the mouth of a corresponding metal object shaped as a toad, each representing a direction like the points on acompass rose.His device had eight mobile arms (for all eight directions) connected with cranks having catch mechanisms at the periphery.When tripped, a crank and right angle lever would raise a dragon head and release a ball which had been supported by the lower jaw of the dragon head.His device also included a vertical pin passing through a slot in the crank, a catch device, a pivot on a projection, a sling suspending the pendulum, an attachment for the sling, and a horizontal bar supporting the pendulum.Wang Zhenduoargued that the technology of the Eastern Han era was sophisticated enough to produce such a device, as evidenced by contemporary levers and cranks used in other devices such as crossbow triggers.

Japanese seismologistAkitsune Imamura,who reconstructed Zhang Heng's seismoscope in 1939 while working atTokyo University

Later Chinese of subsequent periods were able to reinvent Zhang's seismoscope. They included the 6th-century mathematician and surveyorXindu Fangof theNorthern Qi dynasty(550–577) and the astronomer and mathematicianLin Xiaogongof theSui dynasty(581–618).Like Zhang, Xindu Fang and Lin Xiaogong were given imperial patronage for their services in craftsmanship of devices for the court.By the time of theYuan dynasty(1271–1368), it was acknowledged that all devices previously made were preserved, except for that of the seismoscope.This was discussed by the scholar Zhou Mi around 1290, who remarked that the books of Xindu Fang and Lin Xiaogong detailing their seismological devices were no longer to be found.Horwitz, Kreitner, and Needham speculate ifTang dynasty(618–907) era seismographs found their way to contemporaryJapan;according to Needham, "instruments of apparently traditional type there in which a pendulum carries pins projecting in many directions and able to pierce a surrounding paper cylinder, have been described."

Hong-sen Yan states that modern replicas of Zhang's device have failed to reach the level of accuracy and sensitivity described in Chinese historical records.Wang Zhenduo presented two different models of the seismoscope based on the ancient descriptions of Zhang's device.In his 1936 reconstruction, the central pillar (du zhu) of the device was a suspended pendulum acting as a movement sensor, while the central pillar of his second model in 1963 was aninverted pendulum.According to Needham, while working in the Seismological Observatory ofTokyo Universityin 1939,Akitsune Imamuraand Hagiwara made a reconstruction of Zhang's device.While it was John Milne and Wang Zhenduo who argued early on that Zhang's "central pillar" was a suspended pendulum, Imamura was the first to propose an inverted model.He argued that transverse shock would have rendered Wang's immobilization mechanism ineffective, as it would not have prevented further motion that could knock other balls out of their position.On June 13, 2005, modern Chinese seismologists announced that they had successfully created a replica of the instrument.

Anthony J. Barbieri-Low, a professor of early Chinese history at theUniversity of California, Santa Barbara,names Zhang Heng as one of several high-ranking Eastern-Han officials who engaged in crafts that were traditionally reserved for artisans (gongCông ), such as mechanical engineering.Barbieri-Low speculates that Zhang only designed his seismoscope, but did not actually craft the device himself. He asserts that this would most likely have been the job of artisans commissioned by Zhang.He writes: "Zhang Heng was an official of moderately high rank and could not be seen sweating in the foundries with thegongartisans and the government slaves. Most likely, he worked collaboratively with the professional casters and mold makers in the imperial workshops. "

Cartography

An early Western-Han (202 BC – AD 9)silkmapfound in tomb 3 ofMawangdui,depicting the Kingdom ofChangshaand Kingdom ofNanyuein southern China (note: the south direction is oriented at the top, north at the bottom)

TheWei(220–265) andJin dynasty (266–420)cartographerand officialPei Xiu(224–271) was the first in China to describe in full the geometricgrid referencefor maps that allowed for precise measurementsusing a graduated scale,as well as topographicalelevation.However, map-making in China had existed since at least the 4th century BC with theQin statemaps found inGansuin 1986.Pinpointed accuracy of the winding courses of rivers and familiarity with scaled distance had been known since theQinand Han dynasty, respectively, as evidenced by their existing maps, while the use of a rectangulargridhad been known in China since the Han as well.Historian Howard Nelson states that, although the accounts of Zhang Heng's work in cartography are somewhat vague and sketchy, there is ample written evidence that Pei Xiu derived the use of the rectangular grid reference from the maps of Zhang Heng.Rafe de Crespigny asserts that it was Zhang who established the rectangular grid system in Chinese cartography.Needham points out that the title of his bookFlying Bird Calendarmay have been a mistake, and that the book is more accurately entitledBird's Eye Map.Historian Florian C. Reiter notes that Zhang's narrative "Guitian fu" contains a phrase about applauding the maps and documents ofConfuciusof the Zhou dynasty, which Reiter suggests placesmaps (tu)on a same level of importance withdocuments (shu).It is documented that a physical geography map was first presented by Zhang Heng in 116 AD, called aTi Hsing Thu.

Odometer and south-pointing chariot

Zhang Heng is often credited with inventing the firstodometer,an achievement also attributed toArchimedes(c. 287–212 BC) andHeron of Alexandria(fl. AD 10–70). Similar devices were used by theRomanand Han-Chinese empires at about the same period. By the 3rd century, the Chinese had termed the device thejili guche(Nhớ cổ xe,"li-recording drum carriage "(the modern measurement of li = 500 m/1640 ft).

Odometercart from a stone rubbing of an Eastern Han dynasty tomb,c. 125

Ancient Chinese texts describe the mechanical carriage's functions; after one li was traversed, a mechanically driven wooden figure struck a drum, and after ten li had been covered, another wooden figure struck a gong or a bell with its mechanically operated arm.However, there is evidence to suggest that the invention of the odometer was a gradual process in Han dynasty China that centered on the "huang men" —court people (i.e. eunuchs, palace officials, attendants and familiars, actors, acrobats, etc.) who followed the musical procession of the royal "drum-chariot".There is speculation that at some time during the 1st century BC the beating of drums and gongs was mechanically driven by the rotation of the road wheels.This might have actually been the design ofLuoxia Hong(c. 110 BC), yet by at least 125 the mechanical odometer carriage was already known, as it was depicted in a mural of the Xiao Tang Shan Tomb.

Thesouth-pointing chariotwas another mechanical device credited to Zhang Heng.It was a non-magnetic compass vehicle in the form of a two-wheeled chariot.Differential gearsdriven by the chariot's wheels allowed a wooden figurine (in the shape of a Chinese state minister) to constantly point to the south, hence its name. TheSong Shu(c. AD 500 ) records that Zhang Heng re-invented it from a model used in the Zhou dynasty era, but the violent collapse of the Han dynasty unfortunately did not allow it to be preserved. Whether Zhang Heng invented it or not,Ma Jun(200–265) succeeded in creating the chariot in the following century.

Legacy

Science and technology

AFlorentinemarble carving ofPtolemy(86–161), who created an Earth-centered universe theory that the scholars Jin Guantao, Fan Hongye, and Liu Qingfeng compare with Zhang Heng's theory published in 125

Zhang Heng's mechanical inventions influenced later Chinese inventors such as Yi Xing, Zhang Sixun, Su Song, and Guo Shoujing. Su Song directly named Zhang's water-powered armillary sphere as the inspiration for his 11th-centuryclock tower.The cosmic model of nine points of Heaven corresponding with nine regions of earth conceived in the work of the scholar-officialChen Hongmou(1696–1771) followed in the tradition of Zhang's bookSpiritual Constitution of the Universe.The seismologist John Milne, who created the modern seismograph in 1876 alongside Thomas Gray andJames A. Ewingat theImperial College of EngineeringinTokyo,commented in 1886 on Zhang Heng's contributions toseismology.The historian Joseph Needham emphasized his contributions to pre-modern Chinese technology, stating that Zhang was noted even in his day for being able to "make three wheels rotate as if they were one."More than one scholar has described Zhang as apolymath.However, some scholars also point out that Zhang's writing lacks concrete scientific theories.Comparing Zhang with his contemporary, Ptolemy (83–161) ofRoman Egypt,Jin Guantao, Fan Hongye, and Liu Qingfeng state:

Based on the theories of his predecessors, Zhang Heng systematically developed the celestial sphere theory. An armillary constructed on the basis of his hypotheses bears a remarkable similarity to Ptolemy's earth-centered theory. However, Zhang Heng did not definitely propose a theoretical model like Ptolemy's earth-centered one. It is astonishing that the celestial model Zhang Heng constructed was almost a physical model of Ptolemy's earth-centered theory. Only a single step separates the celestial globe from the earth-centered theory, but Chinese astronomers never took that step.

Here we can see how important the exemplary function of the primitive scientific structure is. In order to use the Euclidean system of geometry as a model for the development of astronomical theory, Ptolemy first had to select hypotheses which could serve as axioms. He naturally regarded circular motion as fundamental and then used the circular motion of deferents and epicycles in his earth-centered theory. Although Zhang Heng understood that the sun, moon and planets move in circles, he lacked a model for a logically structured theory and so could not establish a corresponding astronomical theory. Chinese astronomy was most interested in extracting the algebraic features of planetary motion (that is, the length of the cyclic periods) to establish astronomical theories. Thus astronomy was reduced to arithmetic operations, extracting common multiples and divisors from the observed cyclic motions of the heavenly bodies.

Poetic literature

Zhang's poetry was widely read during his life and after his death. In addition to the compilation of Xiao Tong mentioned above, theEastern WuofficialXue Zong(d. 237) wrote commentary on Zhang's poems "Dongjing fu" and "Xijing fu".The influential poet Tao Qian wrote that he admired the poetry of Zhang Heng for its "curbing extravagant diction and aiming at simplicity", in regards to perceived tranquility and rectitude correlating with the simple but effective language of the poet.Tao wrote that both Zhang Heng and Cai Yong "avoided inflated language, aiming chiefly at simplicity", and adding that their "compositions begin by giving free expression to their fancies but end on a note of quiet, serving admirably to restrain undisciplined and passionate nature".

Posthumous honors

Zhang was given great honors in life and in death. The philosopher and poetFu Xuan(217–278) of theWeiandJindynasties once lamented in an essay over the fact that Zhang Heng was never placed in theMinistry of Works.Writing highly of Zhang and the 3rd-century mechanical engineer Ma Jun, Fu Xuan wrote, "Neither of them was ever an official of the Ministry of Works, and their ingenuity did not benefit the world. When (authorities) employ personnel with no regard to special talent, and having heard of genius neglect even to test it—is this not hateful and disastrous?"

In honor of Zhang's achievements in science and technology, his friend Cui Ziyu (Cui Yuan) wrote a memorial inscription on his burial stele, which has been preserved in theGuwen yuan.Cui stated, "[Zhang Heng's] mathematical computations exhausted (the riddles of) the heavens and the earth. His inventions were comparable even to those of the Author of Change. The excellence of his talent and the splendour of his art were one with those of the gods."The minor official Xiahou Zhan (243–291) of the Wei dynasty made an inscription for his own commemorative stele to be placed at Zhang Heng's tomb. It read: "Ever since gentlemen have composed literary texts, none has been as skillful as the Master [Zhang Heng] in choosing his words well... if only the dead could rise, oh I could then turn to him for a teacher!"

Several things have been named after Zhang in modern times, including the lunar craterChang Heng,the asteroid1802 Zhang Heng,and the mineralzhanghengite.In 2018, China launched a research satellite called China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite (CSES) which is also named Zhangheng-1 (ZH-1).

See also

• Han poetry
• Fu (poetry)
• Return to the Field
• Yu Xi

References

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Further reading

• Lien, Y. Edmund (2011).Zhang Heng, Eastern Han Polymath, His Life and Works(PhD thesis). University of Washington.