Natural philosophy

This article is about the philosophical study of nature. For the current in 19th-century German idealism, seeNaturphilosophie.

A celestial map from the 17th century, by the Dutch cartographerFrederik de Wit

Natural philosophyorphilosophy of nature(fromLatinphilosophia naturalis) is thephilosophicalstudy ofphysics,that is,natureand the physicaluniversewhile ignoring anysupernaturalinfluence. It was dominant before the development ofmodern science.

From the ancient world (at least sinceAristotle) until the 19th century,natural philosophywas the common term for the study of physics (nature), a broad term that included botany, zoology, anthropology, and chemistry as well as what we now call physics. It was in the 19th century that the concept of science received its modern shape, with different subjects within science emerging, such asastronomy,biology,andphysics.Institutions and communities devoted to science were founded.Isaac Newton's bookPhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica(1687) (English:Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) reflects the use of the termnatural philosophyin the 17th century. Even in the 19th century, the work that helped define much of modern physics bore the titleTreatise on Natural Philosophy(1867).

In theGerman tradition,Naturphilosophie(philosophy of nature) persisted into the 18th and 19th centuries as an attempt to achieve a speculative unity ofnatureand spirit, after rejecting thescholastictradition and replacing Aristotelianmetaphysics,along with those of the dogmatic churchmen, with Kantianrationalism.Some of the greatest names in German philosophy are associated with this movement, includingGoethe,Hegel,andSchelling.Naturphilosophiewas associated withRomanticismand a view that regarded the natural world as a kind of giant organism, as opposed to the philosophical approach of figures such asJohn Lockeand others espousing a moremechanical philosophyof the world, regarding it as being like a machine.

Origin and evolution of the term

The termnatural philosophypreceded current usage ofnatural science(i.e. empirical science). Empirical science historically developed out ofphilosophyor, more specifically, natural philosophy. Natural philosophy was distinguished from the other precursor of modern science,natural history,in that natural philosophy involved reasoning and explanations about nature (and afterGalileo,quantitativereasoning), whereas natural history was essentiallyqualitativeand descriptive.

Greek philosophersdefined natural philosophy as the combination of beings living in the universe, ignoring things made by humans.The other definition refers tohuman nature.

In the 14th and 15th centuries, natural philosophy was one of many branches of philosophy, but was not a specialized field of study. The first person appointed as a specialist in Natural Philosophyper sewasJacopo Zabarella,at theUniversity of Paduain 1577.

Modern meanings of the termsscienceandscientistsdate only to the 19th century. Before that,sciencewas a synonym forknowledgeorstudy,in keeping with its Latin origin. The term gained its modern meaning whenexperimentalscience and thescientific methodbecame a specialized branch of study apart from natural philosophy,especially sinceWilliam Whewell,a natural philosopher from theUniversity of Cambridge,proposed the term "scientist" in 1834 to replace such terms as "cultivators of science" and "natural philosopher".

From the mid-19th century, when it became increasingly unusual for scientists to contribute to bothphysicsandchemistry,"natural philosophy" came to mean justphysics,and the word is still used in that sense in degree titles at theUniversity of OxfordandUniversity of Aberdeen.In general, chairs of Natural Philosophy established long ago at the oldest universities are nowadays occupied mainly by physics professors.Isaac Newton's bookPhilosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica(1687), whose title translates to "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", reflects the then-current use of the words "natural philosophy", akin to "systematic study of nature". Even in the 19th century, a treatise byLord KelvinandPeter Guthrie Tait,which helped define much of modern physics, was titledTreatise on Natural Philosophy(1867).

Scope

Plato's earliest known dialogue,Charmides,distinguishes betweenscienceor bodies of knowledge that produce a physical result, and those that do not. Natural philosophy has been categorized as a theoretical rather than a practical branch of philosophy (like ethics). Sciences that guide arts and draw on the philosophical knowledge of nature may produce practical results, but these subsidiary sciences (e.g., architecture or medicine) go beyond natural philosophy.

The study of natural philosophy seeks to explore the cosmos by any means necessary to understand the universe. Some ideas presuppose that change is a reality. Although this may seem obvious, there have been some philosophers who have denied the concept of metamorphosis, such as Plato's predecessorParmenidesand later Greek philosopherSextus Empiricus,and perhaps some Eastern philosophers.George Santayana,in hisScepticism and Animal Faith,attempted to show that the reality of change cannot be proven. If his reasoning is sound, it follows that to be a physicist, one must restrain one's skepticism enough to trust one's senses, or else rely onanti-realism.

René Descartes'metaphysicalsystem ofmind–body dualismdescribes two kinds of substance: matter and mind. According to this system, everything that is "matter" isdeterministicand natural—and so belongs to natural philosophy—and everything that is "mind" isvolitionaland non-natural, and falls outside the domain of philosophy of nature.

Branches and subject matter

Major branches of natural philosophy includeastronomyandcosmology,the study of nature on the grand scale;etiology,the study of (intrinsic and sometimes extrinsic)causes;the study ofchance,probability and randomness; the study ofelements;the study of theinfiniteand the unlimited (virtual or actual); the study ofmatter;mechanics,the study of translation ofmotion and change;the study ofnatureor the various sources of actions; the study of naturalqualities;the study of physicalquantities;the study of relations between physical entities; and thephilosophy of space and time.(Adler, 1993)

History

For the history of natural philosophy prior to the 17th century, seeHistory of science,History of physics,History of chemistry,andHistory of astronomy.

Humankind's mental engagement with nature certainly predates civilization and the record of history. Philosophical, and specifically non-religious thought about the natural world, goes back to ancient Greece. These lines of thought began before Socrates, who turned from his philosophical studies from speculations about nature to a consideration of man, or in other words, political philosophy. The thought of early philosophers such asParmenides,Heraclitus,andDemocrituscentered on the natural world. In addition, threePresocraticphilosophers who lived in the Ionian town ofMiletus(hence theMilesian Schoolof philosophy),Thales,Anaximander,andAnaximenes,attempted to explain natural phenomena without recourse to creationmythsinvolving theGreek gods.They were called thephysikoi( "natural philosophers" ) or, as Aristotle referred to them, thephysiologoi.Plato followed Socrates in concentrating on man. It was Plato's student, Aristotle, who, in basing his thought on the natural world, returned empiricism to its primary place, while leaving room in the world for man.Martin Heideggerobserves that Aristotle was the originator of conception of nature that prevailed in the Middle Ages into the modern era:

ThePhysicsis a lecture in which he seeks to determinebeingsthat arise on their own,τὰ φύσει ὄντα,with regard to theirbeing.Aristotelian "physics" is different from what we mean today by this word, not only to the extent that it belongs to antiquity whereas the modern physical sciences belong tomodernity,rather above all it is different by virtue of the fact thatAristotle's "physics"is philosophy, whereas modern physics is apositivescience that presupposes aphilosophy.... This book determines the warp and weft of the whole of Western thinking, even at that place where it, as modern thinking, appears to think at odds with ancient thinking. But opposition is invariably comprised of a decisive, and often even perilous, dependence. Without Aristotle'sPhysicsthere would have been no Galileo.

Aristotle surveyed the thought of his predecessors and conceived of nature in a way that charted a middle course between their excesses.

Plato's world of eternal and unchangingForms,imperfectly represented in matter by a divineArtisan,contrasts sharply with the various mechanisticWeltanschauungen,of whichatomismwas, by the fourth century at least, the most prominent... This debate was to persist throughout the ancient world. Atomistic mechanism got a shot in the arm fromEpicurus... while theStoicsadopted adivine teleology... The choice seems simple: either show how a structured, regular world could arise out of undirected processes, or inject intelligence into the system. This was how Aristotle... when still a young acolyte of Plato, saw matters.Cicero... preserves Aristotle's owncave-image:iftroglodyteswere brought on a sudden into the upper world, they would immediately suppose it to have been intelligently arranged. But Aristotle grew to abandon this view; although he believes in a divine being, thePrime Moveris not theefficient causeof action in the Universe, and plays no part in constructing or arranging it... But, although he rejects the divine Artificer, Aristotle does not resort to a pure mechanism of random forces. Instead he seeks to find a middle way between the two positions, one which relies heavily on the notion of Nature, orphusis.

"The world we inhabit is an orderly one, in which things generally behave in predictable ways, Aristotle argued, because every natural object has a" nature "—an attribute (associated primarily with form) that makes the object behave in its customary fashion..."Aristotle recommendedfour causesas appropriate for the business of the natural philosopher, or physicist, "and if he refers his problems back to all of them, he will assign the 'why' in the way proper to his science—the matter, the form, the mover, [and] 'that for the sake of which'".While the vagaries of the material cause are subject to circumstance, the formal, efficient and final cause often coincide because in natural kinds, the mature form andfinal causeare one and the same. Thecapacityto mature into a specimen of one's kind is directly acquired from "the primary source of motion", i.e., from one's father, whose seed (sperma) conveys the essential nature (common to the species), as a hypotheticalratio.

Material cause

An object's motion will behave in different ways depending on the [substance/essence] from which it is made. (Compare clay, steel, etc.)

Formal cause

An object's motion will behave in different ways depending on its material arrangement. (Compare a clay sphere, clay block, etc.)

Efficient cause

That which caused the object to come into being; an "agent of change" or an "agent of movement".

Final cause

The reason that caused the object to be brought into existence.

From the late Middle Ages into the modern era, the tendency has been to narrow "science" to the consideration of efficient or agency-based causes of a particular kind:

The action of an efficient cause may sometimes, but not always, be described in terms of quantitative force. The action of an artist on a block of clay, for instance, can be described in terms of how many pounds of pressure per square inch is exerted on it. The efficient causality of the teacher in directing the activity of the artist, however, cannot be so described… The final cause acts on the agent to influence or induce her to act. If the artist works "to make money," making money is in some way the cause of her action. But we cannot describe this influence in terms of quantitative force. The final cause acts, but it acts according to the mode of final causality, as an end or good that induces the efficient cause to act. The mode of causality proper to the final cause cannot itself be reduced to efficient causality, much less to the mode of efficient causality we call "force."

In ancient Greece

Early Greek philosophers studied motion and the cosmos. Figures likeHesiodregarded the natural world as offspring of the gods, whereas others likeLeucippusandDemocritusregarded the world as lifeless atoms in a vortex.Anaximanderdeduced that eclipses happen because of apertures in rings of celestial fire.Heraclitusbelieved that the heavenly bodies were made of fire that were contained within bowls. He thought that eclipses happen when the bowl turned away from the earth.Anaximenesis believed to have stated that an underlying element was air, and by manipulating air someone could change its thickness to create fire, water, dirt, and stones.Empedoclesidentified the elements that make up the world, which he termed the roots of all things, as fire, air, earth, and water.Parmenidesargued that all change is a logical impossibility. He gives the example that nothing can go from nonexistence to existence.Platoargues that the world is an imperfect replica of an idea that a divine craftsman once held. He also believed that the only way to truly know something was through reason and logic. Not the study of the object itself, but that changeable matter is a viable course of study.

Aristotle's philosophy of nature

Main article:Aristotelian physics

"An acorn is potentially, but not actually, an oak tree. In becoming an oak tree, it becomes actually what it originally was only potentially. This change thus involves passage from potentiality to actuality — not from non-being to being but from one kind or degree to being another"

Aristotle held many important beliefs that started a convergence of thought for natural philosophy. Aristotle believed that attributes of objects belong to the objects themselves, and share traits with other objects that fit them into a category. He uses the example of dogs to press this point. An individual dog may have very specific attributes (ex. one dog can be black and another brown) but also very general ones that classify it as a dog (ex. four-legged). This philosophy can be applied to many other objects as well. This idea is different from that of Plato, with whom Aristotle had a direct association. Aristotle argued that objects have properties "form" and something that is not part of its properties "matter" that defines the object.The form cannot be separated from the matter. Given the example that you can not separate properties and matter since this is impossible, you cannot collect properties in a pile and matter in another.

Aristotle believed that change was a natural occurrence. He used his philosophy of form and matter to argue that when something changes you change its properties without changing its matter. This change occurs by replacing certain properties with other properties. Since this change is always an intentional alteration whether by forced means or by natural ones, change is a controllable order of qualities. He argues that this happens through three categories of being: non-being, potential being, and actual being. Through these three states the process of changing an object never truly destroys an object's forms during this transition state but rather just blurs the reality between the two states. An example of this could be changing an object from red to blue with a transitional purple phase.

Medieval philosophy of motion

Medieval thoughts on motion involved much of Aristotle's worksPhysicsandMetaphysics.The issue that medieval philosophers had with motion was the inconsistency found between book 3 ofPhysicsand book 5 ofMetaphysics.Aristotle claimed in book 3 ofPhysicsthat motion can be categorized by substance, quantity, quality, and place. where in book 5 ofMetaphysicshe stated that motion is a magnitude of quantity. This disputation led to some important questions to natural philosophers: Which category/categories does motion fit into? Is motion the same thing as a terminus? Is motion separate from real things? These questions asked by medieval philosophers tried to classify motion.

William of Ockhamgives a good concept of motion for many people in the Middle Ages. There is an issue with the vocabulary behind motion that makes people think that there is a correlation between nouns and the qualities that make nouns. Ockham states that this distinction is what will allow people to understand motion, that motion is a property of mobiles, locations, and forms and that is all that is required to define what motion is. A famous example of this isOccam's razor,which simplifies vague statements by cutting them into more descriptive examples. "Every motion derives from an agent." becomes "each thing that is moved, is moved by an agent" this makes motion a more personal quality referring to individual objects that are moved.

Natural philosophy in the early modern period

Thescientific methodhas ancient precedents, andGalileoexemplifies a mathematical understanding of nature, which is a hallmark of modern natural scientists. Galileo proposed that objects falling regardless of their mass would fall at the same rate, as long as the medium they fall in is identical. The 19th-century distinction of a scientific enterprise apart from traditional natural philosophy has its roots in prior centuries. Proposals for a more "inquisitive" and practical approach to the study of nature are notable inFrancis Bacon,whose ardent convictions did much to popularize his insightfulBaconian method.The Baconian method is employed throughoutThomas Browne's encyclopaediaPseudodoxia Epidemica(1646–1672), which debunks a wide range of common fallacies through empirical investigation of nature. The late-17th-century natural philosopherRobert Boylewrote a seminal work on the distinction betweenphysicsandmetaphysicscalled,A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature,as well asThe Skeptical Chymist,after which the modern science ofchemistryis named, (as distinct fromproto-scientificstudies ofalchemy). These works of natural philosophy are representative of a departure from themedievalscholasticismtaught in Europeanuniversities,and anticipate in many ways, the developments that wouldlead to scienceas practiced in the modern sense. As Bacon would say, "ve xing nature" to reveal "her" secrets (scientific experimentation), rather than a mere reliance on largely historical, evenanecdotal,observationsof empiricalphenomena,would come to be regarded as a defining characteristic ofmodern science,if not the very key to its success. Boyle's biographers, in their emphasis that he laid the foundations of modern chemistry, neglect how steadily he clung to the scholastic sciences in theory, practice and doctrine.However, he meticulously recorded observational detail on practical research, and subsequently advocated not only this practice, but its publication, both for successful and unsuccessful experiments, so as to validate individual claims by replication.

For sometimes we use the wordnaturefor thatAuthor of naturewhom theschoolmen,harshly enough, callnatura naturans,as when it is said thatnaturehath made man partly corporeal andpartly immaterial.Sometimes we mean by thenatureof a thing theessence,or that which the schoolmen scruple not to call thequiddityof a thing, namely, theattributeorattributeson whose score it is what it is, whether the thing becorporealor not, as when we attempt to define thenatureof anangel,or of atriangle,or of afluidbody, as such. Sometimes we takenaturefor an internal principle ofmotion,as when we say that a stone let fall in theairis bynaturecarried towards the centre of theearth,and, on the contrary, thatfireor flame doesnaturallymove upwards towardheaven.Sometimes we understand bynaturethe established course of things, as when we say thatnaturemakes thenightsucceed the day,naturehath maderespirationnecessary to the life of men. Sometimes we takenaturefor anaggregate of powersbelonging to a body, especially a living one, as whenphysicianssay thatnatureis strong or weak or spent, or that in such or suchdiseasesnatureleft to herself will do the cure. Sometimes we take nature for theuniverse,or system of the corporeal works ofGod,as when it is said of aphoenix,or achimera,that there is no such thing innature,i.e. in the world. And sometimes too, and that most commonly, we would express bynatureasemi-deityor other strange kind of being, such as this discourse examines the notion of.

— Robert Boyle,A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature

Natural philosophers of the late 17th or early 18th century were sometimes insultingly described as 'projectors'. Aprojectorwas an entrepreneur who invited people to invest in his invention but – as the caricature went – could not be trusted, usually because his device was impractical.Jonathan Swift satirized natural philosophers of theRoyal Societyas 'the academy of projectors' in his novelGulliver's Travels.Historians of science have argued that natural philosophers and the so-called projectors sometimes overlapped in their methods and aims.

Current work in the philosophy of science and nature

In the middle of the 20th century,Ernst Mayr's discussions on theteleologyof nature brought up issues that were dealt with previously by Aristotle (regardingfinal cause) and Kant (regardingreflective judgment).

Especially since the mid-20th-century European crisis, some thinkers argued the importance of looking at nature from a broad philosophical perspective, rather than what they considered a narrowly positivist approach relying implicitly on a hidden, unexamined philosophy.One line of thought grows from the Aristotelian tradition, especially as developed byThomas Aquinas.Another line springs fromEdmund Husserl,especially as expressed inThe Crisis of European Sciences.Students of his such asJacob KleinandHans Jonasmore fully developed his themes. Last, but not least, there is theprocess philosophyinspired byAlfred North Whitehead's works.

Among living scholars,Brian David Ellis,Nancy Cartwright,David Oderberg,andJohn Dupréare some of the more prominent thinkers who can arguably be classed as generally adopting a more open approach to the natural world. Ellis (2002) observes the rise of a "New Essentialism".David Oderberg (2007) takes issue with other philosophers, including Ellis to a degree, who claim to beessentialists.He revives and defends the Thomistic-Aristotelian tradition from modern attempts to flatten nature to the limp subject of the experimental method. In Praise of Natural Philosophy: A Revolution for Thought and Life (2017),Nicholas Maxwellargues that we need to reform philosophy and put science and philosophy back together again to create a modern version of natural philosophy.

See also

• Environmental philosophy– Branch of philosophy
• Gentleman scientist– Financially independent scientistPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• History of science
• Natural environment– Living and non-living things on Earth
• Natural theology– Theology reliant on rational and empirical arguments
• Naturalism (philosophy)– Belief that only natural laws and forces operate in the universe
• Nature (philosophy)– Philosophical term
• Protoscience– Research field with some scientific qualities

Further reading

• Adler, Mortimer J.(1993).The Four Dimensions of Philosophy: Metaphysical, Moral, Objective, Categorical.Macmillan.ISBN0-02-500574-X.
• E.A. Burtt,Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science(Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1954).
• Philip Kitcher,Science, Truth, and Democracy.Oxford Studies in Philosophy of Science. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. LCCN:2001036144ISBN0-19-514583-6
• Bertrand Russell,A History of Western Philosophyand Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day(1945) Simon & Schuster, 1972.
• Santayana, George(1923).Scepticism and Animal Faith.Dover Publications.pp.27–41.ISBN0-486-20236-4.
• David Snoke,Natural Philosophy: A Survey of Physics and Western Thought.Access Research Network, 2003.ISBN1-931796-25-4.Natural Philosophy: A Survey of Physics and Western ThoughtWelcome to The Old Schoolhouse® Magazine
• Nancy R. PearceyandCharles B. Thaxton,The Soul of Science: Christian Faith and Natural Philosophy(Crossway Books, 1994,ISBN0891077669).
• Alfred N. Whitehead,Process and Reality,The Macmillan Company, 1929.
• René Thom,Modèles mathématiques de la morphogenèse,Christian Bourgois, 1980.
• Claude Paul Bruter,Topologie et perception,Maloine, 3 vols. 1974/1976/1986.
• Jean Largeault,Principes classiques d'interprétation de la nature,Vrin, 1988.
• Moritz Schlick,Philosophy of Nature,Philosophical Library, New York, 1949.
• Andrew G. Van Melsen,The Philosophy of Nature,Duquesne University, Pittsburgh 1954.
• Miguel Espinoza, A Theory of Intelligibility. A Contribution to the Revival of the Philosophy of Nature, Thombooks Press, Toronto, ON, 2020.
• Miguel Espinoza, La matière éternelle et ses harmonies éphémères, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2017.
• Thagard, Paul(2019).Natural Philosophy: From Social Brains to Knowledge, Reality, Morality, and Beauty.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN9780190686444.

External links

• "Aristotle's Natural Philosophy",Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Institute for the Study of Nature
  • "A Bigger Physics,"a talk at MIT by Michael Augros
  • Other articles