Bizantsko Carstvo

Serija članaka ohistoriji Grčke;
Heladski period	oko.3200–1050.pne.
Egejska civilizacija	prije1600. pne.
Mikenska Grčka	oko.1600–1200.pne.
Mračno doba	oko.1200–800.pne.
Antička Grčka	776–323.pne.
Helenistička Grčka	323. pne.–146. pne.
Rimska Grčka	146. pne.–330n.e.
Bizantska Grčka	330. n.e.–1453.
Osmanska Grčka	1453–1832
Moderna Grčka	poslije1832.
Teme
Grčki jezik	Grčka književnost
Vojna historija	Imena Grka

Bizant(Vizantija) iliBizantsko Carstvo(Vizantijsko Carstvo), jehistorijskinaziv za istočnoRimsko Carstvokoje je nastalo285godine kad jecar Dioklecijanadministrativno podjelio tadašnjeRimsko CarstvonaIstočnoiZapadno.No obično se uzima395godina za godinu početka, kada je carTeodosije I Velikidao svojim sinovima carstvo:ArkadijuIstok, aHonorijuZapad. Godina pada se smatra1453,kada suOsmanlijezauzeliCarigrad.

NazivBizantse nije koristio u vrijeme postojanja države nego ga je tek u 18. vijeku uveo francuski povjesničar Montesquieu. Kao i drugi povjesničari tog vremena on je smatrao da Bizantsko carstvo nakon 5. vijeka nije vrijedno imenaRimskoiako su vizantinci sebe smatrali rimljanima, a vizantijski car je sebe smatrao jedinim pravim vladarom Rima "rođenim u purpuru". Zato je Montesquieu uzeo latinizirano ime glavnog gradaByzantium(od grčkogByzántion,današnjiIstanbul), za cijelo carstvo. Prvi naziv ovog grada je bioConstantinopolispo caruKonstantinukoji ga gradi i koji iz Rima prenosi ovde prestonicu. Ovo čini zbog tadašnje velike ekonomske krize i neuspeha ranijih reformi vojske i državne uprave. Konstantin najzad priznaje hrišćanstvo kao zvaničnu religiju carstva i vrši ostale potrebne reforme, te Rim polako počinje sa oporavkom.

Građani Bizantskog carstva su sebe smatrali Rimljanima, a službeni jezik je bio isprva latinski, kao i u zapadnom dijelu Carstva, a od 7. vijeka, odlukom caraIraklija(vladao od 610. - 641.), grčki.

Vizantijski car je do 800. godine i krunisanjaKarla Velikogbio jedini car u hrišćanskom svetu. Posle 800. godine institucija vizantijskog cara biva poljuljana, ali on i dalje sebe naziva "vasilevs - car Rimski" što ni jedan drugi vladar tog vremena nije mogao reći za sebe.

Vizantija je bila država jako vezana za hrišćanstvo koje je bilo jedina zvanična religija carstva vekovima. Viševekovno rivalstvo dva hrišćanska poglavara i pokušaj prevlasti nad carevinom kulminira 1054. godine kada rimskiPapaodbijajući da prizna samoizabranog arhiepiskopa CarigradskoigFotija,demonstrativno baca anatemu na istočnu hrišćansku crkvu u velelepnoj crkvi Sveta Marija (današnjaAja Sofija). Od tog doba dve hrišćanske crkve se samostalno razvijaju i grade sve veće razlike među sobom, pokušavajući da se nametnu u hrišćanskom svetu. Česti su, u prošlosti, bili pokušaji falsifikovanja istorijskih činjenica, pa čak sukoba i otvorenih ratova prouzrokovanih ovim neslaganjima.

Poreklo imena „Vizantijsko Carstvo “

Termin „Vizantijsko Carstvo “je moderan naziv i bio bi stran njegovim savremenicima. Domaći, vizantijski, naziv je bioῬωμανία—RomaniailiΒασιλεία Ῥωμαίων—Basileia Romaion,što predstavlja direktan prevodlatinskognaziva zaRimsko Carstvo,Imperium Romanorum,a svi postojeći zapisi govore o tzv. Vizantijcima kao "Romejima",dakle zemlji koja je naslednik Rimskog Carstva i njenim podanicima.

Sam naziv prvi put se koristi1557.od strane nemačkog istoričaraHeronima Volfau njegovom delu „Corpus Historiae Bizantinae “. Potiče od starog grčkog naziva Vizantion, grčke kolonije naBosforu,na čijem je mestu kasnije podignuta prestonica Istočnog Carstva,Konstantinopolj.Prema predanju, grad su osnovali grčki kolonisti, koje je predvodio neki Viza (Biza) iliVizas(Bizas) i po njenu je i naselje dobilo imeVizantion(Bizantion). Zbog povoljnog geografskog položaja Vizantion je brzo postao važan primorski i trgovački grad, ali pak u antičkom periodu nije zauzeo neku značajniju ulogu.

Grčka kultura

Bizantsko Carstvo555godine je prikazano crvenom i zelenom bojom

Osnovni današnji problem Bizanta je da se niti danas svi povjesničari ne mogu složiti kada je ovo Carstvo nastalo i nestalo. Godine njegovog nastanka se pomiču zavisno od izvora između283.godine kada umire carKari kada se carstvo prvi put dijeli ( što će potvrditiDioklecijan) i640.godine kadaMediteranprestaje biti Rimsko jezero. Iako je323.godine samo 10 - 15 posto stanovnika Carstva bilo kršćanske vjere to će se tijekom sljedećih 100 godina promjeniti u potpuno obratnu situaciju. Tijekom V. stoljeća dok Zapadne prefekture (Zapadno Rimsko Carstvo) propadaju pod navalom barbara Istok se osjetio pozvanim sudjelovati u pokušaju spasa. Sve od410.godine ti pokušaji bez uspješnih rezultata će dovesti praktičkiBizantdo bankrota nakon čega on financijski iscrpljen pušta ostatak Carstva svojoj sudbini. Koristeći gotovo potpuni mir koji traje 40 godina tijekom vladavinaAnastazijaiJustinaCarstvo je bilo financijski spremno za povratak izgubljenih provincija. Tijekom vladavineJustinijana I.doći će do oslobađanjaAfrike,Italije,Dalmacije,južne obaleHispanijei svih sredozemnih otoka. Da li je njegov san o obnovi cjelokupnog Carstva bio moguć ili ne nikada nećemo doznati pošto je Carstvo (iPerzija) bilo potreseno velikom epidemijom po broju žrtava prilično sličnom kugi. Ostatak ovog razdoblja nalazi državu u defanzivi pod napadimaAvaraiSlavenanaBalkanu,Langobardau Italiji, Perzije na Bliskom Istoku iVizigotakoji početkom VII. stoljeća uspjevaju osloboditiHispaniju.Veliki, četvrt stoljeća dugi, rat s Perzijom će napokon završiti627.godine pobjedom carHeraklijakoja je trebala donesti pobjedu. Ta pobjeda na kraju postaje pirova kadaArapiujedinjeni muslimanskom vjerom čiji nastanak je Carstvo potpomoglo (točnijeMuhameda) pobjeđuju Rimsku vojsku, osvajajuBliski Istok,a ubrzo potom640.godine iEgipat.Gubitkom žitnih polja ove provincije kao iSirijekoja se specijalizirala za proizvodnju ulja dolazimo do granice koja označava zbog općih životnih promjena stanovništva krajAntike.

Borba za život

Bizant u doba stupanja na vlastLeona III. Izurijanca 717.godine

Gubitak više od pola Carstva u samo jednom desetljeću je rezultiralo borbom na život i smrt protiv fanatično nastrojenih Arapa u njihovom širenju vjere. Tijekom tih bitaka bivše multietnička Carstvo će padomKartage 695.godine postati gotovo jednonacionalna, grčka država. U bitkama tijekom kojih će doći čak i do dvije opsadeCarigradaBizantće preživjeti samo zbog otkrićaGrčke vatrekoja će spaliti protivničku flotu. Do stabiliziranja ostataka države koja je spala s carstva gradova na carstvo tvrđava dolazi stupanjem na vlastLeona III. Izurijancau VIII. stoljeću. To vrijeme mira neće zadovoljiti stanovništvo koje sada bez vanjskih neprijatelja počinje njih tražiti među sobom putem unutrašnjih nemira kojima se odlučuje da li će biti dopušteno ili ne pravljenjeikona.Ova polemika će trajati gotovo do polovice IX. stoljeća kada ćeregent Teodoradonesti odluku u korist ikona.

Makedonci

Kraj tih nemira daruje državi sada vjersko kao što je prije imalo i nacionalno jedinstvo. Takav razvoj situacije će dati snagu Carstvu za ponovno vođenje aktivne vanjske politike čemu će malo poslužiti i sreća. Politika pobjeda i poraza u ratu sa susjedima caraBazilija I.će biti nastavljena sve do961.godine kada vlast preuzimaju najprije vojni zapovjednici, a potom sposobniBazilije II.Bugaroubojica. Tijekom njegove vladavine biti će anektiranoBugarsko Carstvo,a nakon toga careva riječ će se slušati od rijekeKupepa sve doKaspijskog mora.Njegova smrt dovodi do povratka vlasti iz glavnog zapovjedništva vojske ponovno u dekadentnu palaču čijim vladarima je sve teško raditi ( čak i imati djecu ) osim pojavljivama na svakodnevnim zabavama. To je dovelo do smanjivanja stajaće vojske kako bi car više novca mogao trošiti na svoje "gluposti". Rezultat te politike će biti poraz caraRomana IV.odTuraka 1071.godine i gubitak u ratu 50 posto stanovništva.

Komneni

Koristeći praktički raspad države na prijestolje će se popeti plemićAleksije I. Komnenkoji ne vidjevši druge mogućnosti traži od pape pomoć za oslobađanje kršćanskih zemalja što će dovesti doKrižarskih ratova.Carstvo će tijekom njegove vladavine povratiti dio izgubljenog teritorija ali unutrašnjo-politički gledano to više neće biti država kao prije. Sada se ona pretvara u feudalno društvo što je točno ono protiv čega se velikiBazilije II.borio. Pored toga nova negativnost ovog uređenja postaje ukidanje stalne vojske i sve veća ovisnost o plaćenicima ili feudalnim gospodarima koji trebaju dati vojsku za potrebu države. Sljedeći Komneni će nastaviti ovu politiku koja će rezultirati klasičnom feudalnom borbom za vlast i padomCarigradau ruke križara1204.godine.

Restauracija i kraj

Stanje na Balkanu i u Maloj aziji1265.godine.Narančasta boja prikazujeBizant,žuta Turke pod vrhovnom vlašću Mongola, crvenaVenecijukoja vladaDubrovnikom,a sivkasta na sjeveruSrbijudok jeBugarskazelene boje

Pad Carigrada će rezultirati stvaranjem kvislinškogLatinskog carstva,dok će lojalna grčka područja proglasiti svoje nezavisne države. One će bitiTrapezuntsko Carstvostvoreno od Komnena još u ožujku1204.,Nikejsko Carstvoosnovano u travnju1204.( u trenutku padaCarigrada), ali službeno proglašeno tek1206.i posljednje osnovanoSolunsko Carstvokoje će veći dio postojanja provesti pod imenomEpirska despotovina.U bitkama za obnovu Carstva koje će trajati sve do1261.godine pobjednik će postati Nicejsko Carstvo sa svojim carem uzurpatoromMihajlom Paleologomkoji će osnovati posljednju vladajuću dinastiju. Nakon njegove smrti1282.godine državom će vladati s kratkim prekidima nesposobni, neaktivni carevi koji ništa ne poduzimaju protiv Tursko-Srpskih osvajanja.Bizantsko-osmanski ratovipokazali su se kao smrtni udarac carstvu. Rezultat toga postaje padCarigrada 1453.godine, a ubrzo potom iMoreje1460/61 godine. Posljednje Carstvo koje preuzima direktno nasljedstvo od starogRimskog Carstvaće umrijeti kadaDavid, car Trapezuntapotpisuje bezuvjetnu kapitulaciju svoje države1461.godineOsmanskom sultanu Mehmedu II.

Povezano

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Hindley, Geoffrey (2004).A Brief History of the Crusades.London: Robinson.ISBN 978-1-84119-766-1.
Hooper, Nicholas; Bennett, Matthew (1996).The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-44049-1.
James, Liz (2010).A Companion to Byzantium.Chichester: John Wiley.ISBN 1-4051-2654-X.
Jenkins, Romilly James Heald (1987).Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries, CE 610–1071.Toronto: University of Toronto Press.ISBN 0-8020-6667-4.
Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin (1986).The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social Economic and Administrative Survey.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN 0-8018-3353-1.
Kaegi, Walter Emil (2003).Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-81459-6.
Kaldellis, Anthony (2007).Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-87688-5.
Karlin-Heyer, P. (1967). „When Military Affairs Were in Leo's Hands”.Tradition23:15–40.JSTOR 27830825.
Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ur. (1991).Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium.New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.
Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich; Constable, Giles (1982).People and Power in Byzantium: An Introduction to Modern Byzantine Studies.Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks.ISBN 0-88402-103-3.
Kazhdan, Aleksandr Petrovich; Epstein, Ann Wharton (1985).Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries.Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.ISBN 0-520-05129-7.
Kean, Roger Michael (2006).Forgotten Power: Byzantium: Bulwark of Christianity.Shropshire: Thalamus.ISBN 1-902886-07-0.
King, David A. (March 1991). „Reviews:The Astronomical Works of Gregory Chioniades, Volume I: The Zij al- Ala'iby Gregory Chioniades, David Pingree;An Eleventh-Century Manual of Arabo-Byzantine Astronomyby Alexander Jones”.Isis82(1): 116–118.DOI:10.1086/355661.
Kitzinger, Ernst (1976). „Byzantine Art in the Period between Justinian and Iconoclasm”. u: W. E. Kleinbauer.The Art of Byzantium and the Medieval West: Selected Studies by Ernst Kitzinger.Bloomington: Indiana University Press. str. 157–232.ISBN 0-253-31055-5.
Klein, Holgen A. (2004). „Eastern Objects and Western Desires: Relics and Reliquaries between Byzantium and the West”.Dumbarton Oaks Papers58:283–314.JSTOR 3591389.
Kountoura-Galake, Eleonora (1996) (Greek).Ο βυζαντινός κλήρος και η κοινωνία των "Σκοτεινών Αἰώνων [" The Byzantine Clergy and the Society of the 'Dark Ages' "].Athens: Ethniko Idryma Erevnon.ISBN 978-960-7094-46-9.
Kuhoff, Wolfgang (2002). „Die diokletianische Tetrarchie als Epoche einer historischen Wende in antiker und moderner Sicht”.International Journal of the Classical Tradition9(2): 177–194.DOI:10.1007/BF02898434.JSTOR 30224306.
Laiou, Angeliki E. (2002).„Exchange and Trade, Seventh-Twelfth Centuries”.u: Angeliki E. Laiou.The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2).Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. str. 697–708. Arhivirano izoriginalana datum 2013-09-30.Pristupljeno 2015-04-14.
Laiou, Angeliki E.; Morisson, Cécile (2007).The Byzantine Economy.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-84978-0.
Laiou, Angeliki E. (2002).„Writing the Economic History of Byzantium”.u: Angeliki E. Laiou.The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 1).Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. str. 3–8. Arhivirano izoriginalana datum 2013-09-30.Pristupljeno 2015-04-14.
Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon (1998).The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England.Malden: Blackwell.ISBN 0-631-22492-0.
Lenski, Noel (1999). „Assimilation and Revolt in the Territory of Isauria, From the 1st Century BC to the 6th Century AD”.Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient42:413–465.DOI:10.1163/1568520991201687.ISSN 0022-4995.JSTOR 3632602.
Louth, Andrew (2005). „The Byzantine Empire in the Seventh Century”. u: Paul Fouracre and Rosamond McKitterick.The New Cambridge Medieval History (Volume I).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-36291-1.
Lowe, Steven; Baker, Martin.„The Seljuqs of Rum”.Arhivirano izoriginalana datum 2007-07-22.Pristupljeno 9 July 2007.
Madden, Thomas F. (2005).Crusades: The Illustrated History.Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.ISBN 0-472-03127-9.
Magdalino, Paul (2002).„Medieval Constantinople: Built Environment and Urban Development”.u: Angeliki E. Laiou.The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2).Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. str. 529–537. Arhivirano izoriginalana datum 2013-09-30.Pristupljeno 2015-04-14.
Magdalino, Paul (2002).The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-52653-1.
Mango, Cyril A. (2007) (Greek [translated from the original by Dimitris Tsoungarakis]).Η Αυτοκρατορία της Νέας Ρώμης [ "Byzantium: The Empire of the New Rome" ].Athens: Educational Institution of the National Bank of Greece.
Mango, Cyril A. (2002).The Oxford History of Byzantium.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-814098-3.
Markham, Paul (1 August 2005).„The Battle of Manzikert: Military Disaster or Political Failure?”.De Re Militari.Pristupljeno 19 May 2007.
Matschke, Klaus-Peter (2002).„Commerce, Trade, Markets, and Money: Thirteenth-Fifteenth Centuries”.u: Angeliki E. Laiou.The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2).Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. str. 771–806. Arhivirano izoriginalana datum 2013-09-30.Pristupljeno 2015-04-14.
McDonnell, Myles Anthony (2006).Roman Manliness: Virtus and the Roman Republic.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-82788-1.
Meier, William N. (2003). „Die Inszenierung einer Katastrophe: Justinian und der Nika-Aufstand”.Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik(142): 273–300.JSTOR 20191600.
Meyendorff, John (1982).The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church.Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press.ISBN 0-913836-90-7.
Millar, Fergus (2006).A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450).Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.ISBN 0-520-24703-5.
Miller, William (1907).„Monemvasia”.The Journal of Hellenic Studies27.
Moravcsik, Gyula (1970).Byzantium and the Magyars.Amsterdam: Hakkert.
Mousourakis, George (2003).The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law.Burlington and Hampshire: Ashgate.ISBN 0-7546-2114-6.
Neumann, Iver B. (2006). „Sublime Diplomacy: Byzantine, Early Modern, Contemporary”.Millennium: Journal of International Studies34(3): 865–888.DOI:10.1177/03058298060340030201.ISSN 1569-2981.
Neubecker, Ottfried; Brooke-Little, John Philip (1997).Heraldry: Sources, Symbols and Meaning.Time Warner.ISBN 0-316-64141-3.
Neville, Leonora Alice (2004).Authority in Byzantine Provincial Society, 950–1100.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-83865-7.
Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (1993).The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-43991-4.
Norwich, John Julius (1998).A Short History of Byzantium.Ringwood, Vic.: Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-025960-5.
Nystazopoulou-Pelekidou, Maria (1970).„Συμβολή εις την χρονολόγησιν των Αβαρικών και Σλαβικών επιδρομών επί Μαυρικίου (582–602) (μετ' επιμέτρου περί των Περσικών πολέμων) [=Contribution to the chronology of Avar and Slav raids during the reign of Maurice (582–602), with an excursus about the Persian Wars "”] (Greek).Byzantina Symmeikta2:145–206.ISSN 1105-1639.Arhivirano izoriginalana datum 2012-06-27.Pristupljeno 10 March 2012.
Obolensky, Dimitri (1994).Byzantium and the Slavs.Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press.ISBN 0-88141-008-X.
Oikonomides, Nikos (1999).„L᾽ "Unilinguisme" Officiel de Constantinople Byzantine”.Byzantina Symmeikta13:9–22.ISSN 1105-1639.Arhivirano izoriginalana datum 2012-06-27.Pristupljeno 11 March 2012.
Ostrogorsky, George (1969).History of the Byzantine State.New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.ISBN 0-8135-1198-4.
Ostrogorsky, George (1959). „The Byzantine Empire in the World of the Seventh Century”.Dumbarton Oaks Papers13:1–21.DOI:10.2307/1291127.JSTOR 1291126.
Paparrigopoulos, Constantine; Karolidis, Pavlos (1925) (Greek).Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους [ "History of the Greek Nation" ], vol. 4.Eleftheroudakis.
Parry, Kenneth (1996).Depicting the Word: Byzantine Iconophile Thought of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries.Leiden and New York: Brill.ISBN 90-04-10502-6.
Patterson, Gordon M. (1995) [1990].The Essentials of Medieval History: 500 to 1450 AD, the Middle Ages.Piscataway: Research and Education Association.ISBN 978-0-87891-705-1.
Postan, Michael Moïssey; Miller, Edward; Postan, Cynthia (1987).The Cambridge Economic History of Europe (Volume 2).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-08709-0.
Pounds, Norman John Greville (1979).An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-22379-2.
Read, Piers Paul (2000) [1999].The Templars: The Dramatic History of the Knights Templar, The Most Powerful Military Order of the Crusades.New York: St. Martin's Press.ISBN 0-312-26658-8.
Reinert, Stephen W. (2002). „Fragmentation (1204–1453)”. u: Cyril Mango.The Oxford History of Byzantium.Oxford: Oxford University Press. str. 248–283.ISBN 0-19-814098-3.
Rice, David Talbot (1968).Byzantine Art (3rd Edition).Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Limited.
Robins, Robert Henry (1993).The Byzantine Grammarians: Their Place in History.Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.ISBN 3-11-013574-4.
Rosser, John H. (2011). „Introduction”.Historical Dictionary of Byzantium.Lanham, MA: Scarecrow.ISBN 0-8108-7567-5.
Runciman, Steven (1982).The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-28926-2.
Runciman, Steven (1990).The Fall of Constantinople, 1453.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-39832-0.
Runciman, Steven (1970).The Last Byzantine Renaissance.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-07787-7.
Ryan, Herbert J. (1993).„The Church in History”.u: Christopher Key Chapple and Thomas P. Rausch.The College Student's Introduction to Theology.Liturgical Press.ISBN 0-8146-5841-5.
Sarantis, Alexander (2009). „War and Diplomacy in Pannonia and the Northwest Balkans during the Reign of Justinian: The Gepid Threat and Imperial Responses”.Dumbarton Oaks Papers63:15–40.JSTOR 41219761.
Sedlar, Jean W. (1994).East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500.III.Seattle:University of Washington Press.ISBN 0-295-97290-4.
Seton-Watson, Hugh (1967).The Russian Empire, 1801–1917.Oxford:Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-822152-5.
Shahid, Irfan (1972). „The Iranian Factor in Byzantium during the Reign of Heraclius”.Dumbarton Oaks Papers26:293–320.DOI:10.2307/1291324.JSTOR 1291324.
Šišić, Ferdo (1990).Povijest Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih vladara: sa 280 slika i 3 karte u bojama.Zagreb: Nakladni zavod Matice hrvatske.ISBN 86-401-0080-2.
Sotinel, Claire (2005). „Emperors and Popes in the Sixth Century: The Western View”. u: Maas, Michael.The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. str. 267–290.ISBN 0-521-81746-3.
Speck, Paul (1984). „Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance”.Poikila Byzantina4:175–210.
Stephenson, Paul (2000).Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-77017-3.
Stone, Andrew.„John II Komnenos (CE 1118–1143)”.Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors.Pristupljeno 18 May 2007.
Stone, Andrew.„Manuel I Komnenos (CE 1143–1180)”.Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors.Pristupljeno 5 February 2007.
Tarasov, Oleg; Milner-Gulland, R. R. (2004).Icon and Devotion: Sacred Spaces in Imperial Russia.London: Reaktion.ISBN 1-86189-118-0.
Tatakes, Vasileios N.; Moutafakis, Nicholas J. (2003).Byzantine Philosophy.Indianapolis: Hackett.ISBN 0-87220-563-0.
Teall, John L. (1967). „The Age of Constantine Change and Continuity in Administration and Economy”.Dumbarton Oaks Papers21:11–36.JSTOR 1291256.
Timberlake, Alan (2004).A Reference Grammar of Russian.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-77292-1.
Treadgold, Warren (1995).Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081.Stanford: Stanford University Press.ISBN 0-8047-2420-2.
Treadgold, Warren (1997).A History of the Byzantine State and Society.Stanford: Stanford University Press.ISBN 0-8047-2630-2.
Treadgold, Warren (1991).The Byzantine Revival, 780–842.Stanford: Stanford University Press.ISBN 0-8047-1896-2.
Troianos, Spyros; Velissaropoulou-Karakosta, Julia (1997).Ιστορία δικαίου από την αρχαία στην νεώτερη Ελλάδα [ "History of law from ancient to modern Greece" ].Athens: Sakkoulas.ISBN 960-232-594-1.
Vasiliev, Alexander Alexandrovich (1928–1935).History of the Byzantine Empire.Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.ISBN 0-299-80925-0.
Versteegh, Cornelis H. M. (1977).Greek Elements in Arabic Linguistic Thinking.Leiden: Brill.ISBN 90-04-04855-3.
Watson, Bruce (1993).Sieges: A Comparative Study.Westport: Praeger.ISBN 0-275-94034-9.
Weitzmann, Kurt (1982).The Icon.London: Evans Brothers.ISBN 0-237-45645-1.
Wells, Herbert George (1922).A Short History of the World.New York: Macmillan.ISBN 0-06-492674-5.
Whittow, Mark (1996).The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025.Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.ISBN 0-520-20496-4.
Wickham, Chris (2009).The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000.New York: Viking.ISBN 0-670-02098-2.
Wolff, Robert Lee (1948).„Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople”.Speculum23(1): 1–34.JSTOR 2853672.
Wroth, Warwick (1908).Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum.British Museum Dept. of Coins and Medals.ISBN 1-4021-8954-0.

Vanjske veze

Byzantium: Studija o Vizantijiskom carstvu Arhivirano2014-10-08 naWayback Machine-u(na engleskom)
O Vizantiji(na engleskom)
De Imperatoribus Romanis.Scholarly biographies of many Byzantine emperors.
12 Byzantine Rulers Arhivirano2016-07-18 naWayback Machine-uby Lars Brownworth of The Stony Brook School; audio lectures.NYTimes review.
18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman(Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime).
Byzantine & Christian Museum

Vizntijske studije, resursi i bibliografija

Fox, Clinton R.What, If Anything, Is a Byzantine? (Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors)
Byzantine studies homepageat Dumbarton Oaks. Includes links to numerous electronic texts.
Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the Internet Arhivirano2014-10-08 naWayback Machine-u.Links to various online resources.
Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700–1204 Arhivirano2001-04-13 naWayback Machine-u.Online sourcebook.
De Re Militari.Resources for medieval history, including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars.
Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium Arhivirano2014-08-14 naWayback Machine-u.Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history.
Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life.Hosted by the University of Vienna; in English.
Constantinople Home Page.Links to texts, images and videos on Byzantium.
Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and Culture.
Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (with further resources and a repository with papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Empire)

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