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Human[1]
Temporal range: 0.35 mya to presentMiddlePleistocene– Recent
Anadulthumanmale(left) andfemale(right) from theAkha tribein NorthernThailand
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Genus: Homo
Species:
H. sapiens
Binomial name
Homo sapiens
Subspecies
Homo sapienspopulation density

Ahumanis a member of thespeciesHomo sapiens,which means 'wise man' inLatin.[3]Carolus Linnaeusput humans in themammalianorderofprimates.[1]Humans are a species ofhominid,andchimpanzees,bonobos,gorillasandorangutansare their closest living relatives.

Humans are mammals. They are also social animals. They usually live in groups. They help and protect each other. They care for theirchildren.Humans arebipedal,which means they walk on twolegs.

Humans have a complexbrain,which is much larger than that of the other living apes. They uselanguage,makeideas,and feelemotions.This brain, and the fact thatarmsare not needed forwalking,lets humans usetools.Humans use tools far more than any other species. Their tools are very advanced.

Humans first came from Africa. There are humans living on everycontinent.[4][5]As of 2023, there were over 8.1billionliving onEarth.[6]Overpopulationis a problem.

Important features[change|change source]

Humans have a long period of development after birth. Their life depends less oninstinctthan other animals, and more onlearning.Humans are also born with theirbrainsnot so well developed as those of othermammals.This makes for an unusually longchildhood,and so makesfamilylife important. If their brains were better developed at birth, their head would be larger, and this would makebirthmore difficult. In birth, the baby's head has to get through the 'birth canal', the passageway through the mother'spelvis.

Many animals diesignsand sounds to communicate with each other. But humans havelanguage.It lets them express ideas by using words. Humans are capable ofabstract ideasand can communicate them to others. Human language can express things which are not present, or talk about events that are not happening at that time.[7]The things might be elsewhere, and the events may also have occurred at another place or time.[8]

No known animals have a system ofcommunicationthat is as elaborate as human language. By using words to communicate with each other, humans makecomplexcommunitieswithlaws,traditionsandcustoms.Humans like to understand theworldaround them. They try to explain things throughmyth,scienceandphilosophy.Wanting to understand things has helped humans make important discoveries.

Humans are the only species living today known to buildfires,tocooktheirfoodand wearclothes.Humans use moretechnologythan any other animal on Earth ever has. Humans like things that arebeautifuland like to makeart,literatureandmusic.Humans useeducationandteachingto pass onskills,ideasandcustomsto the nextgenerations.

Origins[change|change source]

See the main article:Human evolution

Humans are part of the animal kingdom. They aremammals,which means that they give birth to their young, and females feed their babies with breast milk. Humans belong to the order ofprimates.Apes like gorillas, orangutans, chimps, andgibbonsare also primates.

The closest living relatives of humans are the two chimpanzee species: thecommon chimpanzeeand thebonobo.Scientists have examined thegenesof humans and chimpanzees, and compared theirDNA.The studies showed that 95% to 99% of the DNA of humans and chimpanzees is the same.[9][10][11][12][13]

Biologists explain the similarity between humans and otherhominoidsby their descent from a common ancestor. In 2001, ahominidskull was discovered inChad.The skull is about 7 million years old, and has been classified asSahelanthropus tchadensis.Thisskullmay show that the date at which humans started toevolve(develop differently) from other primates is 2 million years earlier than scientists had previously thought.[14]

Humans are part of asubfamilycalled the Homininae (orhominins), inside thehominidsorgreat apes.

There used to be other types of hominins on Earth. They were similar to modern humans, but not the same.Homo sapiensare the only type of hominins who are alive today.[15]The earliest known fossils of genusHomohave been calledHomo habilis(handy man). The firstfossilsofHomo habiliswere found inTanzania.Homo hablilisis thought to have lived about 2.2 to 1.7 million years ago.[16]Another human species thought to be an ancestor of the modern human isHomo erectus.[17]There are other extinct species ofHomoknown today. Many of them were likely our 'cousins', as they developed differently to our ancestors.[18]Different species of plants and animals moved from Africa to the Middle East, and then elsewhere. Early humans may have moved from Africa to other parts of the world in the same way.

Out of Africa[change|change source]

See the main article:Out of Africa

The first truly modern humans seem to have appeared between 300,000,[19]and 200,000 years ago inEast Africa.[20][21][22]Inpaleontology,200,000 years is a "short" time. So,scientistsspeak of a "recent single origin" of humans. Some of these early humans later moved out fromAfrica.By about 90,000 years ago they had moved intoEurasia.This was the area whereNeanderthals,Homo neanderthalensis,had been living for a long time (at least 350,000 years).

By about 42 to 44,000 years agoHomo sapienshad reached westernEurope,includingBritain.[23]In Europe and western Asia,Homo sapiensreplaced the neanderthals by about 35,000 years ago. The details of this event are not known.

At roughly the same timeHomo sapiensarrived inAustralia.Their arrival in theAmericaswas much later, about 15,000 years ago.[24]All these earlier groups of modern man werehunter-gatherers.

Civilization[change|change source]

See the main article:World history
StonehengeinEnglandwas built around 4500-4000 years ago. This time was in theNeolithicperiod of theStone Age.

Early human historyis commonly divided into three ages. The time periods are labeled with the material used for tools.

The "Stone Age" is commonly subdivided into thePaleolithic,Mesolithic,andNeolithicperiods.

Up to about 10 thousand years ago most humans werehunter-gatherers.They did not live in one place, butmoved aroundas theseasonschanged. The start of plantingcropsfor food, calledfarmingmade theNeolithic revolution.Some people chose to live insettlements.This also led to the invention ofmetaltools and the training ofanimals.About 6000 years ago the first proper civilizations began in places likeEgypt,India,andSyria.The people formed governments andarmiesfor protection. They competed for area to live and resources and sometimes theyfought with each other.About 4000 years ago some states took over or conquered other states and madeempires.Examples include ancientGreeceand theRomanEmpire.

Some modern day religions also began at this time such asJudaismandHinduism.From the Middle Ages and beyond humanity saw an explosion of new technology and inventions. The printing press, thecar,thetrain,andelectricityare all examples of this kind of invention. As a result of the developments in technology, modern humans live in a world where everyone is connected, for example bytelephoneor byinternet.People now control and change theenvironmentaround them in many different ways.

Habitats, settlements and population[change|change source]

Humans can now change their environment to solve problems. The many tall buildings in Hong Kong are an example of people solving the problem of too many people in one place.
Humans can now change their environment to solve problems. The many tall buildings inHong Kongare an example of people solving the problem oftoo many people in one place.

In early times, humans usually settled near towaterand othernaturalresources.In modern times if people need things they cantransportthem from somewhere else. So basing a settlement close to resources is no longer as important as it once was. Since 1800, the number of humans, orpopulation,hasincreasedby six billion.[25]Most humans (61%) live inAsia.The rest live inthe Americas(14%),Africa(14%),Europe(11%), andOceania(0.5%).

Most people live intownsandcities.This number is expected to get higher. In 2005 theUnited Nationssaid that by the end of that year, over half the world would be living in cities. This is an important change in human settlement patterns: a century earlier in 1900 only 14% of people lived in cities, in 2000 47% of the world's population lived in cities. In developed countries, like theUnited States,80% of the population live in cities.[26]

Humans have a large effect on the world. Humans are at the top of thefood chainand are generally not eaten by any animals. Humans have been described as superpredatorsbecause of this.[27]Because ofindustryand other reasons humans are said to be a big cause ofglobalclimate change.[28]

Biology[change|change source]

Physical appearance[change|change source]

Theanatomyoffemaleandmalehumans. These models had body hair and facial hair removed and head hair trimmed.

Human body measurements differ. The worldwide averageheight for an adult humanmale is about172 cm (5 ft7+1⁄2in), and the worldwide average height for adult human females is about 158 cm (5 ft 2 in). The average weight of an adult human is 54–64 kg (119–141 lb) for females and 70–83 kg (154–183 lb) for males.[29][30]Body weight and body type is influenced bygeneticsand environment. It varies greatly among individuals.

Humanhairgrows on the underarms, thegenitals,legs, arms, and on the top of theheadin adults of both genders. Hair will usually grow on thefaceof most adult males, and on thechestand back of many adult males. In human children of both genders, long hair grows only on the top of the head. Although it might look like humans have fewer hairs than mostprimates,they actually do not. The average human has more hairfollicles,where hair grows from, than most chimpanzees have.[31]Human hair can beblack,brown,redorblond.[32]When humans get older hair can turngreyorwhite.

Humanskincolors vary greatly. They can be a very palepinkall the way to darkbrown.There is a reason why people in tropical areas have dark skins. The dark pigment (melanin) in the skin protects them againstultravioletrays insunlight.The damage caused by UV rays can and does causeskin cancerin some people. Therefore, in more sunny areas,natural selectionfavors darker skin color.[33][34]Sun tanning has nothing to do with this issue, because it is just a temporary process which is not inherited. In colder climates the advantage of light-coloured skin is two-fold. It radiates less heat, and it absorbs more sunlight. In weaker sunlight a darker body produces lessvitamin Dthan a lighter body. The selection for lighter skin is driven by these two reasons. Therefore, in less sunny areas, natural selection favours lighter skin colour.[35][36][37]

Humans are not as strong as otherprimatesof the same size. An averagefemaleorangutan is at least three times as strong as an average human.[38]

The average human male needs 7 to 8 hourssleepa day. People who sleep less than this are generally not ashealthy.A child needs even more sleep, 9 to 10 hours on average.

Life cycle[change|change source]

A humanfoetusat 7 weeks old

The human life cycle is similar in some ways to most othermammals.However, there are some differences. The young grow inside the femalemotherfor ninemonths.After this time thebabyis pushed out of the woman'svagina,with its brain only half developed.

Unlike most other mammals, human childbirth is somewhat dangerous. Babies' heads are large, and the motherspelvisbonesare not very wide. Since people walk on twolegs,their hips are fairly narrow. This means that birth can be difficult. Rarely, mother or baby maydiein childbirth.[39]The number of mothers dying in childbirth is less in the 21st century. This is because of bettermedicationand treatment. If a difficult birth is foreseen, thefoetuscan be removed surgically, andincubated(developed, but not in the womb).

In many poor countries the number of mothers dying is higher. Sometimes it is up to 10 times as many as richer countries.[40]

In the human female, her fertile period in theoestrous cycleis hidden, and mating can take place at any time. That is quite unusual. In mammals generally the fertile period is very noticeable. Mating only takes place when the female signals her fertility. Think about cats, for example. The human cycle is unusual, and it is thought that there is a reason. Humans band together in tribes which have many people. It helps the tribe if the father of a child is not known for certainty. Men live together and work together inmuchlarger groups than do chimpanzees (our nearest living relatives). They have a collective interest in the tribe. It is thought that the human mating system helps this.[41][42]

The average human babyweighs3–4kgat birth and is 50–60cmtall. Babies are often smaller in poorer countries,[43]and may die early because of this.[44]

Humans have four stages in their lives:childhood,adolescence,adulthoodandold age.

Life expectancyis how long you are expected to live. This depends on many things including where you live. The highest life expectancy is for people fromMonaco,89.52 years. The lowest is for people fromChadwhere life expectancy is only 49.81 years.[45]Human life-spans can be longer than other mammals, evenelephants.

Psychology and neurology[change|change source]

Main articles:Psychologyandcerebral cortex
A drawing of part of a human brain

Psychologyis the study of how the humanmindworks. The humanbrainis the main controller of what a person does. Everything frommovingandbreathingtothinkingis done by the brain. The humanneocortexis huge compared with othermammals,and gives us our thinking ability, and the ability to speak and understandlanguage.

Neurologyis the study of how the brain works,psychologyis the study of how and why people think andfeel.Many aspects of life are also influenced by thehormone system,includinggrowthand sexual development. The hormonal system (especially thepituitary gland) is partly controlled by the brain.

Human behaviour is hard to understand, so sometimes psychologists studyanimalsbecause they may be simpler and easier to know. Psychology overlaps with many other sciences includingmedicine,biology,computer scienceandlinguistics.

Culture[change|change source]

Language[change|change source]

See the main article:Language

Languageat its most basic is talking,readingandwriting.The study of language is calledlinguistics.Humans have the most complicated languages on Earth. Although almost all animals communicate, human language is unique. Its use ofsyntax,and its huge learntvocabularyare its main features.[8][46]There are over 7,300 languages spoken around the world. The world's most spokenfirst languageisMandarin Chinese,and the most spoken language is English.[47]This includes speakers of English as asecond language.

Reliability[change|change source]

This is to explain the difference between features which are long established, and ones which are relatively recent in evolution. The human ability to walk and run upright on two legs is recent. The ability to speak is even more recent. Contrast those two with something ancient, like the way most land vertebrates walk on four legs.

In every case, the older way is very reliable in its development, and the new tactic is more variable, and involves some learning.

Art, music, and literature[change|change source]

Main articles:Art,music,andliterature
Palaeolithiccavepaintingsfrom over 15,000 years ago on a cave wall inRussia

Arthas existed almost as long as humans. People have been doing some types of art for thousands of years as the picture on the right shows. Art represents how someone feels in the form of apainting,asculptureor aphotograph.

Musichas also been around for thousands of years. Music can be made with only yourvoicebut most of the time people useinstruments.Music can be made using simple instruments only such as simpledrumsall the way up toelectric guitars,keyboardsandviolins.Music can be loud, fast, quiet, slow or many different styles. Music represents how the people who are playing the music feel.

Literatureis anything made or written usinglanguage.This includesbooks,poetry,legends,mythsandfairy tales.Literature is important as without it many of the things we use today, such asWikipedia,would not exist.

Race and ethnicity[change|change source]

Main articles:Race (sociology)andethnicity

Humans often categorize themselves by race or ethnicity. Modernbiologistsknow that humangenesequences are very similar compared to many other animals.[48][49][50]This is because of the "recent single origin"of modern humans.[22]That is one reason why there is only one human race.[51][52]: 360 

Ethnic groups are often linked by linguistic, cultural, ancestral, and national or regional ties. Race and ethnicity can lead to different social treatment calledracism.

Religion and spirituality[change|change source]

See the main article:Religion

Religionis abeliefoffaithin a higher being, spirit, or any system of ideas that a group of people believe in. To havefaithin a belief is to have the belief without proof that it is true. Faith can bring people together because they all believe in the same thing. Some of the things religions talk about are what happens afterdeath,why humans exist, how humans came to exist (creation), and what is good to do and not to do (morality). Some people are veryreligious.Many people believe in one all-powerfulgod;some people believe in more than one god; some people areatheists,who do not believe in a god; and some people areagnostics,who are not sure if there is a god.

Science and technology[change|change source]

Main articles:ScienceandTechnology
In the 20th century technology moved forward enough to allow a person to land onthe Moon.

Technology are the things and methods which humans use to make tasks easier. Science is understanding how theuniverseand the things in it work. Technology used to be quite simple. It was passed on by people telling others, untilwritingwas invented. This allowed technology todevelopmuch quicker. Now people understand more and more about the world and the universe. The use of thetelescopebyGalileo,Einstein'stheory ofrelativity,lasers,andcomputingare all scientific discoveries. Technology is of great importance to science, to medicine, and to everyday life.

Warfare[change|change source]

See the main article:War
The 'mushroom cloud' from theNagasakiatomic bomb

Awaris alethalfight between large groups of people, usuallycountriesorstates.A war involves the use of lethal weapons as both sides try to kill the other. It is estimated that during the 20th century, between 167 and 188 million humansdiedbecause of war.[53]The people who fight for a state in wars are calledsoldiers.The people who fight in wars, but not for a state, are usually called "fighters".

Modern wars are very different from wars a thousand or even a hundred years ago. Modern war involves sabotage,terrorism,propaganda,andguerrilla warfare.In modern-day wars, civilians (people who are not soldiers) are often targets. An example of this is thenuclear bombdropped onHiroshimaandNagasakiat the end ofWorld War II.The bombs killed as many as 140,000 people in Hiroshima and 80,000 in Nagasaki by the end of 1945,[54]about half on the days of the bombings. Since then, thousands more have died from wounds or illness because ofexposure to radiationreleased by the bombs.[55]In both cities, the overwhelming majority of the dead were civilians. In Germany, Austria, and Great Britain, conventional bombs were used. About 60,595 British,[56]and 550,000 German,[57]civilians were killed by planes bombing cities.

References[change|change source]

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  2. ↑Global Mammal Assessment Team (2008)."Homo sapiens".The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2008:e.T136584A4313662.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T136584A4313662.en.Archivedfrom the original on 7 December 2017.Retrieved14 January2018.
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  9. ↑By usinggenomesequencing,scientists have compared:
    1. The difference between two humans that are related
    2. The difference between two humans that are not related
    3. The difference between a human and a chimpanzee
    4. The difference between two other animals that look like each other- rats and mice
    The studies showed that, after 6.5 million years of evolution as separate species, between 95% and 99% of the DNA of humans and chimpanzees is the same. The difference between a human and a chimpanzee was about ten times greater than the difference between two unrelated humans. When this difference is compared with the difference between the DNA of mice and rats, the difference between a mouse and a rat is ten times greater than the difference between a human and a chimpanzee.
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  53. ↑Ferguson, Niall. "The Next War of the World." Foreign Affairs, September/October 2006
  54. ↑"Frequently Asked Questions #1".Radiation Effects Research Foundation. Archived fromthe originalon 2011-08-22.Retrieved2007-09-18.
  55. ↑Rezelman, David; F.G. Gosling and Terrence R. Fehner (2000)."The atomic bombing of Hiroshima".U.S. Department of Energy. Archived fromthe originalon 2006-09-29.Retrieved2007-09-18.page on Hiroshima casualties.
  56. ↑Matthew WhiteTwentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls: United KingdomArchived2009-04-20 at theWayback Machinelists the following totals and sources:
    • 60,000, (bombing): John KeeganThe Second World War(1989);
    • 60,000: Boris Urlanis,Wars and Population(1971)
    • 60,595: Harper Collins Atlas of the Second World War
    • 60,600: John Ellis, World War II: a statistical survey (Facts on File, 1993) "killed and missing"
    • 92,673, (incl. 30,248 merchant mariners and 60,595 killed by bombing): Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition, 1992 printing. "Killed, died of wounds, or in prison.... excluding those who died of natural causes or were suicides."
    • 92,673: Norman Davies,Europe A History(1998) same as Britannica's war dead in most cases
    • 92,673: Michael ClodfelterWarfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991;
    • 100,000: William Eckhardt, a 3-page table of his war statistics printed in World Military and Social Expenditures 1987–88 (12th ed., 1987) by Ruth Leger Sivard. "Deaths", including "massacres, political violence, and famines associated with the conflicts."
    The British kept accurate records during WWII: 60,595 was the official death toll with 30,248 for the British merchant mariners (most of whom are listed on the Tower Hill Memorial)
  57. ↑German Deaths by aerial bombardment (It is not clear if these totals includes Austrians, of whom about 24,000 were killed (see:Austrian Press & Information Service, Washington, D.CArchived2006-04-20 at theWayback Machine) and other territories in the Third Reich but not in modern Germany)
    • 600,000 about 80,000 were children inHamburg, Juli 1943Archived2012-02-25 at theWayback MachineinDer SpiegelSpiegel Online, 2003 (in German)
    • Matthew WhiteTwentieth Century Atlas – Death TollsArchived2018-12-24 at theWayback Machinelists the following totals and sources:
      • more than 305,000: (1945 Strategic Bombing Survey);
      • 400,000:Hammond Atlas of the 20th Century(1996)
      • 410,000: R.J. Rummel, 100% Democide;
      • 499,750: Michael ClodfelterWarfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991;
      • 593,000: John KeeganThe Second World War(1989);
      • 593,000: J.A.S. Grenville citing "official Germany" inA History of the World in the Twentieth Century (1994)
      • 600,000: Paul JohnsonModern Times(1983)

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