Byzantine Empire

Roman Empire Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων(Ancient Greek) Imperium Romanum(Latin)
330/395–1453b
The empire in 555 underJustinian the Great,at its greatest extent since the fall of theWestern Roman Empire(itsvassalsin pink)
The territorial evolution of the Eastern Roman Empire under each imperial dynasty until its fall in 1453.
Status	Eastern division of theRoman Empire[1]
Capital	Constantinople(modern-dayIstanbul)c
Common languages	Greek Latin Regional / local languages
Religion	Nicene Christianity(official) Roman polytheism(until AD 380) Greek polytheism(until AD 380)
Demonym(s)	Rhōmaîoi
Notable emperors
• 306–337	Constantine I(first)
• 408–450	Theodosius II
• 474–475, 476–491	Zeno
• 527–565	Justinian I
• 582–602	Maurice
• 610–641	Heraclius
• 717–741	Leo III
• 797–802	Irene
• 867–886	Basil I
• 976–1025	Basil II
• 1081–1118	Alexios I
• 1143–1180	Manuel I
• 1261–1282	Michael VIII
• 1449–1453	Constantine XI
Historical era	Late AntiquitytoLate Middle Ages
•First East–West divisionof the Roman Empire	1 April 286
•Inauguration of Constantinople	11 May 330
• Final East–West division after the death ofTheodosius I	17 January 395
•Fall of the West;deposition ofRomulus	4 September 476
• Assassination of Julius Nepos	9 May 480
•Early Muslim conquests;start of theDark Ages	634–750
•Battle of Manzikert;loss ofAnatoliadue to following civil war	26 August 1071
•Sack of Constantinopleby Catholic crusaders	12 April 1204
•Reconquest of Constantinople	25 July 1261
•Fall of Constantinople	29 May 1453
•Fall of Morea	29 May 1460
•Fall of Trebizond	15 August 1461
Population
• 457	16,000,000f
• 565	26,000,000
• 775	7,000,000
• 1025	12,000,000
• 1320	2,000,000
Currency	Solidus,denariusandhyperpyron
^Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίωνmay be transliterated in Latin asBasileia Rhōmaiōn,literally meaning "Monarchy of the Romans", but commonly rendered "Empire of the Romans". ^Between 1204 and 1261 there was aninterregnumwhen theLatin Empiretook control of Constantinople, causing the Byzantine Empire itself to be divided into theEmpire of Nicaea,theEmpire of Trebizond,and theDespotate of Epirus.The Empire of Nicaea is traditionally considered by historians to be the legitimate continuation of the Byzantine Empire because it managed to retake Constantinople. ^Constantinople became the capital of the (united) empire in 330. In 395, the empire was permanently divided in two halves after the death ofTheodosius I. ^Tolerated after the Edicts ofSerdica(311) andMilan(313);state religionafter 380. ^Following theEast–West Schismof 1054. ^SeePopulation of the Byzantine Empirefor more detailed figures taken provided by McEvedy and Jones (1978)Atlas of World Population History,as well as Angeliki E. Laiou (2002),The Economic History of Byzantium.

TheByzantine Empire,also referred to as theEastern Roman Empire,was the continuation of theRoman Empireprimarily in its eastern provinces that survived into theLate Antiquityand theMiddle Ages.Thecapitalof the empire wasConstantinople.It survived thefall of the Western Roman Empirein the 5th century AD and continued to exist until thefall of Constantinopleto theOttoman Empirein 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in theMediterranean world.Its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the Roman Empire and to themselves as Romans, a term whichGreekscontinued to use for themselves into Ottoman times. Modern historians distinguish the Byzantine Empire from the earlier Roman Empire due to the imperial seat moving from Rome toByzantium,theEmpire's integration of Christianity,and the predominance ofGreekinstead ofLatin.

During the high period of the Roman Empire known as thePax Romana,the western parts of the empire went throughLatinization,while the eastern parts of the empire maintained to a large degree theirHelenistic culture.Several events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire'sGreek East and Latin Westdiverged.Constantine I(r. 324–337) reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the capital, and legalisedChristianity.UnderTheodosius I(r. 379–395), Christianity became thestate relegion,and other religious practiceswere proscribed.In the reign ofHeraclius(r. 610–641), the empire's military and administration were restructured and Greek was gradually adopted for official use in place of Latin.

The borders of the empire fluctuated through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign ofJustinian I(r. 527–565), the empire reached its greatest extent after the fall of the west, reconquering much of the historically Roman westernMediterranean coast,includingAfrica,Italy,andRome,which it held for two more centuries. TheByzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628exhausted the empire's resources, and during theearly Muslim conquestsof the 7th century, it lost its richest provinces—EgyptandSyria—to theRashidun Caliphate.It then lost Africa to theUmayyadsin 698, before the empire was stabilized by theIsauriandynasty.

During theMacedonian dynasty(9th–11th centuries), the empire expanded again and experienced the two-century-longMacedonian Renaissance,which came to an end with the defeat by theSeljuk Turksat theBattle of Manzikertin 1071. Civil wars and the ensuing Seljuk invasion led to the loss of most ofAsia Minor.The empire recovered during theKomnenian restoration,and up until the Fourth Crusade, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe.

The empire was first dissolved during theFourth Crusadein 1204, when Constantinople wassackedby the Latins and the territories that the empire formerly governedwere dividedinto competing Byzantine Greek andLatin realms.Despite the eventualrecovery of Constantinoplein 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained a mere regional power for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans in theByzantine–Ottoman warsover the 14th and 15th centuries.

The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 marked the end of the Byzantine Empire. Refugees fleeing the city after its capture would settle in Italy and other parts of Europe, helping to ignite theRenaissance.TheEmpire of Trebizondwas conquered eight years later when its eponymous capital surrendered to Ottoman forces after it wasbesieged in 1461.The fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans is sometimes used to mark the end of the Middle Ages and the start of theearly modern period.

Name

The Byzantine Empire did not get that name until a century after its fall. The empire was known at the time as the following:

• the "Roman Empire" or the "Empire of the Romans" (Latin:Imperium Romanum,Imperium Romanorum;Greek:Βασιλεία τῶν ῬωμαίωνBasileia tōn Rhōmaiōn,Ἀρχὴ τῶν ῬωμαίωνArchē tōn Rhōmaiōn),
• "Romania" (Latin:Romania;Greek:ῬωμανίαRhōmania),
• the "Roman Republic"(Latin:Res Publica Romana;Greek:Πολιτεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων,Politeia tōn Rhōmaiōn),
• "Graecia" (Greek:Γραικίαmeaning "land of the Greeks" ),
• "Rhōmais" (Greek:Ῥωμαΐς).

Beginning (330–476 AD)

See the main article:Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Western and Eastern Roman Empire

In 324, Roman EmperorConstantine Imoved the capital of theRoman EmpirefromRometo the Greek city ofByzantium,which he renamedConstantinople.By the 5th century, the Roman Empire had lost its territories in the west, and theWestern Roman Empirehad been taken over byGermanic peoplesduring theMigration period.The surviving parts of the Roman Empire became known as the Eastern Roman Empire and is now called the Byzantine Empire.

Problems (476–717 AD)

Wars in west

The Eastern Roman Empire tried to take backRomeand the rest ofItalian Peninsulafrom theGermanic peoples.Between 530 and 555 AD, theByzantine Greekswon many battles and took back Rome.

The Byzantines controlled Rome for a long time. Eventually, more Germanic peoples came, and Italy was lost again. Later,AvarsandSlavstook parts ofSoutheast Europefrom the Byzantines. After the 560s, invaders slowly conquered theBalkansexcept for parts of modernGreeceandAlbania.Bulgarsfrom thesteppesformed theFirst Bulgarian Empirenorth of the Byzantine Empire. At first, both the Avars and the Bulgars wereTurkic peoples.They ruled over theSlavic people,who were calledSklavinai,and slowly absorbed the Slavic language andculture.

Wars in east

After Rome had been captured by the Germanic peoples, the Eastern Roman Empire continued to control what is nowEgypt,Greece,Palestine,SyriaandTurkey.However, another empire, known as the Persian or theSassanid Empire,tried to take the lands for itself. Between 224 and 628, the Greco-Romans and the Persians fought many battles, and many men were killed in the fighting. Eventually, the Persians were defeated in 627 by EmperorHeracliusin what is nowIraq,near the ancient city ofNineveh,which allowed the Byzantines to keep those lands.

The centuries-long struggle between the Byzantines and the Persians shaped the political and religious landscape of the Middle East, leaving behind a complex legacy that continues to influence the region today.

Then, another enemy appeared, theArabs.The Byzantines did not have much money to spend on war because of their battles with the Persians and so they could not withstand the Arabs. Palestine, Syria and Egypt were lost between 635 and 645 by Heraclius. However, the Byzantines defendedAsia Minor(now in Turkey), and the Arab advance stopped there. Heraclius ordered the use of Greek as the only language of the empire, erased forever the name "Eastern Roman Empire" and cut the last links with Rome.

Recovery (717–1025 AD)

In 718, the Arabs were defeated but left the Byzantines very weak. In the west, the ByzantinesfoughttheBulgariansmany times. Some battles were successful, but others were not. Many emperors died fighting. Over time, the Byzantine Empire weakened as it lost land to outside invaders.

Recovery in west

Between 1007 and 1014, EmperorBasil IIambitiously attacked Bulgaria many times and eventually won a great victory. Later, he fully recaptured Greece and recovered it for the empire. He then went on to take over Bulgaria, which was fully conquered in 1018.

Recovery in east

In the east, the Arabs once again became a threat to the Byzantines. However, Basil II kept attacking and won many more victories. Much of Syria was restored to the empire, and Turkey and Armenia were secured. After 1025, the Arabs were no longer a threat to the Byzantines.

Decline (1025–1453 AD)

Start of decline (1025–1071)

After Basil II died, many unskilled emperors came to the throne, wasted the empire's money and reduced its army. This meant that it could not defend itself well against enemies if they attacked. Later, the Byzantines relied onmercenaries,soldiers who fought for money, not for their country. That made them less loyal and reliable and more expensive. The mercenaries allowed military generals to come to power and to grab it from the elaboratebureaucracy,a system of administration in which tasks are divided by departments.

Rise of Turks (1071–1091)

A large number of people, known as theTurks,rode on horseback fromCentral Asiaand attacked the Byzantine Empire. TheSeljuk Empiretook most ofAnatoliafrom the Byzantines by 1091. However, they received help from people in Western Europe in what is known as theFirst Crusade.Manyknightsandsoldiersleft to help the Byzantines and to secureJerusalemfor the Christians. The city wad then controlled by the Muslims.

Survival (1091–1185)

The Byzantine Empire survived and, with the help of the European empires, took back half of Anatolia from the Turks, who managed to hold the other half of the region. The Byzantines survived due to three primarily good emperors in a row, that allowed the empire to recover from their recent conflicts.

Another weakening (1185-1261)

The next few emperors ruled poorly and spent much of the existing treasury on many mercenary soldiers.

In the west, the Western Europeans betrayed the Byzantines and attacked their capital, Constantinople in in 1204. The Byzantines did not take it back until 1261. They were then divided into many smaller Greek states, which fought one another for control.

Fall to Turks (1261–1453)

After the Byzantines had taken back Constantinople, they were too busy fighting the Europeans who had betrayed them and so they could not find enough soldiers or money to fight the Turks' newOttoman Empire.All of Asia Minor had been lost by 1331, and in 1369, the Turks crossed over from Turkey and intoGreece.They took over much of Greece between 1354 and 1450.

The Byzantines lost so much land, money and soldiers that they became very weak and begged for help from the Western Europeans. Italy and thePopesent soldiers and ships to help the Byzantines when the Turks attacked Constantinople in April 1453. The Byzantines were badly outnumbered, however, and the walls of Constantinople were very damaged by cannons used by the Turks. In late May 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople by entering through one of the gates along the walls, and the empire came to an end.

The city was plundered for three days. In the end, the people who had not been able to escape was deported toEdirne,Bursaand other Ottoman cities. There was nobody in the city except for the Jews of Balat and the Genoese of Pera. Constantinople was later renamedIstanbuland became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. After the empire fell in the 1900s, the Turkish capital was moved toAnkara,a city in Asia Minor.

Legacy

The Byzantines had many achievements:

• They protected Europe from eastern invasions.
• They blocked the Islamic conquest of Christian Europe by the Arabs.
• They initially blocked the second Islamic tentative to conquer Christian Europe by the Turks (until 1453).
• They preserved the Greek language and culture.
• They preserved many Roman political traditions that had been lost in Western Europe.
• They kept a lot of knowledge that can be read about today.
• They produced much fine art with a distinctive style.
• They were the protectors and sponsors of the Eastern Church, which later becomes the Orthodox Church.
• They used good architecture that is still used.
• They had cities with plumbing, which is still in use.
• They built many beautiful churches, some of which are now mosques, in what are now Turkey and Greece. They are made from or inspired by Byzantine buildings.
• They made several inventions like theflamethrowerand "Greek fire", a kind ofnapalm.
• They made advances in many fields like political studies, diplomacy and military sciences.

Related pages

• Byzantine art
• Byzantine Greeks

Sources

• Ahrweiler, Helene (1975).L'Ideologie Politique de l'Empire Byzantine [The Political Ideology of the Byzantine Empire](in French). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Baynes, Norman Hepburn; Moss, Henry St. Lawrence Beaufort (1948).Byzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilization.Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Cartwright, Mark (13 April 2018)."Byzantine Government".Ancient History Encyclopedia.
• Cinnamus, Ioannes (1976).Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus.New York and West Sussex: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-04080-6.
• Clover, F. M.; Humphreys, R. S. (1989).Tradition and Innovation in Late Antiquity.Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.ISBN9780299120009.
• Constantelos, Demetrios I. (2001–2002)."Μαρτυρίες για την Ταυτότητα των Βυζαντινών και των Ρωμιών σε Ελληνικές Πηγές".Πεμπτουσία(in Greek).
• Fossier, Robert; Sondheimer, Janet (1997).The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-26644-0.
• Lemerle, Paul (1971).Le Premier Humanisme Byzantin [The First Byzantine Humanism](in French). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Linnér, Sture (1994).Bysantinsk kulturhistoria [History of Byzantine Culture](in Swedish). Stockholm: Norstedt.ISBN978-9-11-941512-7.

Other websites

• World History Encyclopedia: Byzantine Empire
• Roman Emperors (De Imperatoribus Romanis)
• 18 Centuries of Roman Empire: A Cartography by Howard Wiseman
• 12 Byzantine Rulers: The History of the Byzantine Empire (Lars Brownworth)
• 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman(Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime).
• Byzantine & Christian Museum
• Dumbarton Oaks: Byzantine Studies
• Byzantium: Byzantine Studies on the InternetArchived2014-10-08 at theWayback Machine
• Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700–1204
• De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History
• Medieval Sourcebook: ByzantiumArchived2014-08-14 at theWayback Machine
• Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life (University of Vienna)
• Constantinople Home Page
• Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and Culture.
• Byzanzforschung: Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences