Skiflar

Skiflar—Qora dengizdanshimoliy-gʻarbda,DunayvaDon,DneprvaDnestr daryolariquyi havzalaridan to Volgaga qadar boʻlgan hududlarda yashagan chorvadoraholi(miloddan avval 7—milodiy 3-asr). Skiflar shimoliyeron tillariningturli lahjalarida soʻzlovchi qabilalar hisoblanadi. Bu hududlarda skiflarga qadar yashagankimmeriylarhameron zabonboʻlgan.Gerodotningyozishicha, bu hududlarga skiflar Osiyodan koʻchib kelganlar va tub aholining til muhiti taʼsirida eronlashganlar. Asl vatani Volgadan sharqda, yaʼni OsiyoningQozogʻistondashtlari,Janubiy UralvaOltoyhamdaJanubiy Sibirhududlari boʻlib, skif qabilalari aslidaeroniy tillarningturli lahjalarida soʻzlashuvchioriylaredi. Chunki, shu mintaqalar aholisining moddiymadaniyativaantropologik tipi jez davridanboshlab birbiridan farq qilmaydi. Skiflar Yevrosiyo choʻllari aholisigaellinlartomonidan berilgan umumiy nom boʻlib, eron manbalarida ularnisaklardeb yuritilgan. Gerodot "forslarskiflarni saklar "deb ataydi deb yozadi. Dengiz sohillariga yaqin istiqomat qilgan aholisiga skif atamasi ishlatilsa,Oʻrta Osiyo,Yettisuvva Qozogʻiston dashtlari hamda Togʻli Oltoy aholisiga nisbatan koʻproq sak atamasi ishlatilib kelinadi. Gerodotning yozishiga qaraganda, osiyolik skiflar dastlab shimoliy va sharqiy Qora dengiz sohillarini egallab, tub aholi — kimmeriylar ustidan oʻz hukmronligini oʻrnatgach, kimmeriy suvoriylariniKichik Osiyogaquvadilar, soʻngMidiya,SuriyavaFalastinhududlarini, ShimoliyMesopotamiyaniegallaydilar.

Miloddan avval 7-asr boshlarida Midiya davlati kuchayib, skiflarni u yerdan haydab chiqaradi. Skiflar Qora dengizdan shimol va sharqda, Dneprdan Dongacha boʻlgan choʻllarda oʻrnashib, endi mahalliy kimmeriy qabilalari bilan ittifoqlikda yashay boshlaydilar. Ellinlar esa bu joylarni Skifiya deb ataydilar. Miloddan avval 7-asrda Skifiya juda katta siyosiy-harbiy qudrat edi. Gerodotning yozishicha,Doroboshliq qudratli Fors davlati miloddan avval 513-yilda skiflar ustiga yurish qilib, oʻz maqsadiga erisha olmagan. Aksincha skiflaraxomaniylargatobe yerlarga javob hujumlari uyushtirib, ularni dahshatga soladilar.Skiflarning tilibarcha manbalardaeroniyekanligi taʼkidlanadi.

Skiflar davlatimiloddan avval 5—4-asrlardaAzov dengizidanDunay daryosigacha hududlarni birlashtirgan kuchli harbiy-demokratik davlat boʻlsada, miloddan avval 3-asrning oxirlarida Don ortidan kelgansarmatlarninghujumi natijasida bir qism hududidan ajrab, ancha zaiflashadi. Mildoiy 1-asrning 2-yarmida skiflar bir necha borBospor podsholigibilan urushlar olib borib, oʻzining avvalgi jangovarlik ruhini yoʻqotadi va nihoyat milodiy 3-asrdaSkifiya gotlartomonidan tugatildi.Xalqlarning buyuk koʻchishidavrida skiflar boshqa qabilalar tarkibiga singib, nafaqat mustaqillik, balki etnik xususiyatlarini ham yoʻqotadilar.

Nomlari

Etimologiyasi

Skiflar nomi qadimgi yunonchaSkuthēs(Σκυθης) vaSkuthoi(Σκυθοι) nomlaridan olingan bo'lib, bu skiflarning o'zlariga berganSkuδatā(kamonchilar) nomidan olingan.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]Ossuriyaliklar bu nomniIškuzaya(𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀),māt Iškuzaya(𒆳𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀),awīlū Iškuzaya(𒇽𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀),^[5]yokiālu Asguzaya(𒌷𒊍𒄖𒍝𒀀𒀀),māt Askuzaya(𒆳𒊍𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀), vamāt Ašguzaya(𒆳𒀾𒄖𒍝𒀀𒀀) shakllariga o'zgartirishgan.

Qadimgi forslar skiflarni "(Qora) dengizdannarida yashovchi Saklar "(𐎿𐎣𐎠 𐏐 𐎫𐎹𐎡𐎹 𐏐 𐎱𐎼𐎭𐎼𐎹,Sakā tayaiy paradraya), misrliklar esa shunchaki "Saklar" (_{𓋴𓎝𓎡𓈉},sk) deb ataydi. Aynan shu nomdan yunon-rim manbalaridagi "Sacae" nomi kelib chiqqan.^[6]^[7]^[8]^[4]^[9]

Zamonaviy terminologiya

Skiflar bugungiQozog'iston,Rossiyaning Sibir dashtlari,^[4]^[10]Ural,Volgava Janubiy hudulari va sharqiyUkrainahududlarini o'z ichiga oluvchi Skif-Sibir xalqlarining bir qismi hisoblangan.^[11]Kengroq ma'noda barcha Yevroosiyo ko'chmanchi qabilalariga nisbatan ham "skiflar" nomi qo'llangan.^[10]Biroq bunday nom bahs-munozaralarga sabab bo'ladi^[4]va mutaxassislar fikricha barcha ko'chmanchilarga nisbatan "ilk ko'chmanchilar" nomini ishlatish to'g'riroq.^[12]

Skiflar,saklarvakimmeriylarko'chmanchi eroniy qabilalar qardoshlari bo'lgan bo'lib, qadimgi bobilliklar, qadimgi forslar va qadimgi yunonlar barcha dasht ko'chmanchilarini mos ravishda "kimmeriylar", "saklar" va "skiflar" deb atashgan. Yangi davrdagi tarixchilar, masalanEdward Gibbonskiflar degandaYevroosiyodashtlaridagi barcha ko'chmanchi va yarim-ko'chmanchi xalqlarni nazarda tutadi.^[13]

"Skif" nomi zamonaviy tarixiy manbalarda miloddan avvalgi VII asr va milodiy III asr oralig'ida Qora dengiz shimoli,QrimvaKuban vodiysida,shuningdek Taman vaKerchyarim orollarida yashagan ko'chmanchi eroniy qabilalarga nisbatan ishlatiladi.^[14]"Saka" atamasi esa ularning sharqiy qardoshlari, Yevroosiyo dashtlarining shimoliy va sharqiy qismlarida vaQashqar tekisligidayashagan xalqlarga nisbatan ishlatiladi.^[15]Kimmeriylar esa o'z davrida madaniy jihatdan skiflarning bir turi sifatida ko'rilgan bo'lsada, ular skiflardan boshqa qabilaga tegishli bo'lgan va Qora dengiz bo'yi dashtlarida yashagan ushbu kimmeriylar oxir-oqibatda skiflar tomonidan siqib chiqarilgan.^[16]

Skiflar o'zlaridan sharqda yashovchi xalqlar bilan bir qator umumiy jihatlarga ega bo'lib, ular bilan bir xil qurollarga, ot anjomlariga va tasviriy san'at ko'rinishlariga ega bo'lishgan va bu olimlar tomonidan "Skif triadasi" deb nomlanadi.^[4]^[12]Ushbu madaniy jihatlarga ega bo'lgan xalqlar odatda skiflar madaniyatiga tegishli deb yuritilgan va shu sababdan ular ham skiflar deb hisoblangan.^[17]Skiflar madaniyatiga ega sifatida ko'rilgan xalqlar nafaqat etnik guruh sifatidagi skiflarning o'zi bo'lishgan,^[18]balki kimmeriylar,massagetlar,saklar,sarmatlarvaSharqiy Yevropao'rmon-dashtlarida istiqomat qilgan turli-tuman noma'lum xalqlar^[4]^[10](masalan, ilkslavyanlar,boltiq xalqlari va fin-ugor xalqlari) ham skiflar sifatida ko'rilgan.^[19]^[20]

Skiflar atamasining ushbu keng ta'rifida, g'arbiy skiflar boshqa skiflardan "Klassik skiflar", "G'arbiy skiflar", "Yevropa skiflari" yoki "Qora dengiz skiflari" nomlari bilan farqlangan.^[10]Lekin arxeolog Maurits Nanning van Loon 1966-yilda kimmeriylarni nomlash uchun "G'arbiy skiflar" nomidan, skiflarning o'zi uchun esa "Sharqiy skiflar" nomidan foydalanadi.^[21]

Skifolog Askold Ivanchik "skiflar" atamasi turli joylarda ham keng, ham tor ma'noda qo'llanishini va bu ilmiy hamjamiyatda ancha chalkashliklarga sabab bo'lishini afsus bilan qayd etadi. Uning fikricha "skiflar" atamasi miloddan avvalgi VII asr - milodiy III asrda Qora dengiz bo'ylarida yashagan eroniy xalqlarning o'zigagina nisbatan ishlatilishi kerak.^[4]Nicola Di Cosmo fikricha Sharqiy Yevropa dashtlarida yashagan ilk ko'chmanchi xalqlarning barchasiga berilgan "skiflar" nomi "o'ta keng va chalkash" shunday ekan ular uchun "ilk ko'chmanchilar" nomini ishlatish to'g'riroqdir.^[12]

Tarix

VI asr oxiridagi Vizantiyaning harbiy taktika haqidagi "Strategikon of Mavrikiy" (Strategikon) risolasi: ". Arriani Tactica & Mauricii" ning 1664-yilgi tarjimasi jamoat kutubxonalarida mavjud. Bu kitobda shunday deyilgan: “Skif qabilalari bir tizim va bir tartibdan foydalanadilar. Lekin ularning intizomi ancha xunuk. Ular orasida faqat turklar va avarlar eng kuchli bo‘lishga intiladi”.Bu yerda muallif turk va avarlarni skif qabilalari deb ham ataydi.

Adabiyot

Manbalar

↑Витчак, К.Т. (1999).„Скифский язык: опыт описания “.Вопросы языкознания.5-jild. 50–59-bet.
↑Bukharin, Mikhail Dmitrievich (2013).„Колаксай и его братья (античная традиция о происхождении царской власти у скифов "[Kolaxais and his Brothers (Classical Tradition on the Origin of the Royal Power of the Scythians)] “.Аристей: вестник классической филологии и античной истории [Aristaeus: Journal of Classical Philology and Ancient History](ruscha). 3-jild. 20–80-bet.
↑Novák, Ľubomír.Problem of Archaism and Innovation in the Eastern Iranian Languages.Prague, Czech Republic: Charles University, 2013 — 10-bet.
↑^4,0^4,1^4,2^4,3^4,4^4,5^4,6Ivantchik, Askold „Scythians“,.Encyclopædia Iranica.New York City, United States: Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation; Brill Publishers, 2018.
↑Parpola, Simo.Neo-Assyrian Toponyms.Kevaeler: Butzon & Bercker, 1970 — 178-bet.
↑Dandamayev, Muhammad „Media and Achaemenid Iran “,.History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250. Vol. 1Harmatta, János Harmatta:.UNESCO, 1994 — 35–64-bet.ISBN9231028464.„In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism. “
↑Cernenko, E. V..The Scythians 700–300 BC.Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012 — 3-bet.ISBN978-1-78096-773-8.„The Scythians lived in the Early Iron Age, and inhabited the northern areas of the Black Sea (Pontic) steppes. Though the 'Scythian period' in the history of Eastern Europe lasted little more than 400 years, from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC, the impression these horsemen made upon the history of their times was such that a thousand years after they had ceased to exist as a sovereign people, their heartland and the territories which they dominated far beyond it continued to be known as 'greater Scythia'. “
↑Melyukova, A. I. „The Scythians and Sarmatians “,.The Cambridge History of Early Inner AsiaSinor, Denis:.Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1990 — 97–117-bet.ISBN978-0-521-24304-9.„From the end of the 7th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. the Central- Eurasian steppes were inhabited by two large groups of kin Iranian-speaking tribes – the Scythians and Sarmatians [...] "[I]t may be confidently stated that from the end of the 7th century to the 3rd century B.C. the Scythians occupied the steppe expanses of the north Black Sea area, from the Don in the east to the Danube in the West. “
↑Sulimirski, T. „The Scyths “,.The Median and Achaemenian Periods. The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 2Gershevitch, I.:.Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1985 — 149–199-bet.ISBN978-1-139-05493-5.„During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock [...] The main Iranian-speaking peoples of the region at that period were the Scyths and the Sarmatians [...] [T]he population of ancient Scythia was far from being homogeneous, nor were the Scyths themselves a homogeneous people. The country called after them was ruled by their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths" (Her. iv. 20), who were of Iranian stock and called themselves "Skolotoi" (iv. 6); they were nomads who lived in the steppe east of the Dnieper up to the Don, and in the Crimean steppe [...] The eastern neighbours of the "Royal Scyths," the Sauromatians, were also Iranian; their country extended over the steppe east of the Don and the Volga. “
↑^10,0^10,1^10,2^10,3Unterländer, Martina (2017).„Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe “.Nature Communications.8: 14615-jild.Bibcode:2017NatCo...814615U.doi:10.1038/ncomms14615.ISSN 2041-1723.PMC5337992.PMID 28256537.„Contemporary descendants of western Scythian groups are found among various groups in the Caucasus and Central Asia, while similarities to eastern Scythian are found to be more widespread, but almost exclusively among Turkic language speaking (formerly) nomadic groups, particularly from the Kipchak branch of Turkic languages. “
↑Järve, Mari (2019).„Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance “.Current Biology.29 (14)-jild. 2430–2441-bet.Bibcode:2019CBio...29E2430J.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019.ISSN 0960-9822.PMID 31303491.
↑^12,0^12,1^12,2Di Cosmo, Nicola „The Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China (1,500 – 221 BC) “,.The Cambridge History of ChinaLoewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L.:.Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1999 — 885–996-bet.ISBN0-521-47030-7.
↑Rogers, Michael „Gibbon, Edward“,.Encyclopædia Iranica.New York City, United States: Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation; Brill Publishers, 2001.
↑Jacobson, Esther.The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World. Handbuch der Orientalistik.Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers, 1995.ISBN978-9-004-09856-5.
↑Kramrisch, Stella. "Central Asian Arts: Nomadic Cultures".Encyclopædia Britannica Online.The Śaka tribe was pasturing its herds in the Pamirs, central Tien Shan, and in the Amu Darya delta. Their gold belt buckles, jewelry, and harness decorations display sheep, griffins, and other animal designs that are similar in style to those used by the Scythians, a nomadic people living in the Kuban basin of the Caucasus region and the western section of the Eurasian plain during the greater part of the 1st millennium bc.
↑Tokhtas’ev, Sergei R. „Cimmerians“,.Encyclopædia Iranica.New York City, United States: Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation; Brill Publishers, 1991.
↑Watson, William (1972). „The Chinese Contribution to Eastern Nomad Culture in the Pre-Han and Early Han Periods “.World Archaeology.4 (2)-jild. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 139–149-bet.doi:10.1080/00438243.1972.9979528.JSTOR 123972.
↑David, Bruno; McNiven, Ian J..The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art.Oxford University Press, 2018.ISBN978-0-19-060735-7.
↑West, Stephanie „Scythians “,.Brill's Companion to HerodotusBakker, Egbert J.; de Jong, Irene J. F.; van Wees, Hans:.Brill, 2002 — 437–456-bet.ISBN978-90-04-21758-4.
↑Davis-Kimball, Jeannine; Bashilov, Vladimir A.; Yablonsky, Leonid T..Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age.Zinat Press, 1995.ISBN978-1-885979-00-1.
↑van Loon, Maurits Nanning (1966).Urartian Art: Its Distinctive Traits in the Light of New Excavations.Istanbul, Turkey: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut.

[1] Витчак, К.Т. (1999).„Скифский язык: опыт описания “.Вопросы языкознания.5-jild. 50–59-bet.

[2] Bukharin, Mikhail Dmitrievich (2013).„Колаксай и его братья (античная традиция о происхождении царской власти у скифов "[Kolaxais and his Brothers (Classical Tradition on the Origin of the Royal Power of the Scythians)] “.Аристей: вестник классической филологии и античной истории [Aristaeus: Journal of Classical Philology and Ancient History](ruscha). 3-jild. 20–80-bet.

[3] Novák, Ľubomír.Problem of Archaism and Innovation in the Eastern Iranian Languages.Prague, Czech Republic: Charles University, 2013 — 10-bet.

[:0-4] 4,0^4,1^4,2^4,3^4,4^4,5^4,6Ivantchik, Askold „Scythians“,.Encyclopædia Iranica.New York City, United States: Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation; Brill Publishers, 2018.

[5] Parpola, Simo.Neo-Assyrian Toponyms.Kevaeler: Butzon & Bercker, 1970 — 178-bet.

[6] Dandamayev, Muhammad „Media and Achaemenid Iran “,.History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250. Vol. 1Harmatta, János Harmatta:.UNESCO, 1994 — 35–64-bet.ISBN9231028464.„In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism. “

[7] Cernenko, E. V..The Scythians 700–300 BC.Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012 — 3-bet.ISBN978-1-78096-773-8.„The Scythians lived in the Early Iron Age, and inhabited the northern areas of the Black Sea (Pontic) steppes. Though the 'Scythian period' in the history of Eastern Europe lasted little more than 400 years, from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC, the impression these horsemen made upon the history of their times was such that a thousand years after they had ceased to exist as a sovereign people, their heartland and the territories which they dominated far beyond it continued to be known as 'greater Scythia'. “

[8] Melyukova, A. I. „The Scythians and Sarmatians “,.The Cambridge History of Early Inner AsiaSinor, Denis:.Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1990 — 97–117-bet.ISBN978-0-521-24304-9.„From the end of the 7th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. the Central- Eurasian steppes were inhabited by two large groups of kin Iranian-speaking tribes – the Scythians and Sarmatians [...] "[I]t may be confidently stated that from the end of the 7th century to the 3rd century B.C. the Scythians occupied the steppe expanses of the north Black Sea area, from the Don in the east to the Danube in the West. “

[9] Sulimirski, T. „The Scyths “,.The Median and Achaemenian Periods. The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 2Gershevitch, I.:.Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1985 — 149–199-bet.ISBN978-1-139-05493-5.„During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock [...] The main Iranian-speaking peoples of the region at that period were the Scyths and the Sarmatians [...] [T]he population of ancient Scythia was far from being homogeneous, nor were the Scyths themselves a homogeneous people. The country called after them was ruled by their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths" (Her. iv. 20), who were of Iranian stock and called themselves "Skolotoi" (iv. 6); they were nomads who lived in the steppe east of the Dnieper up to the Don, and in the Crimean steppe [...] The eastern neighbours of the "Royal Scyths," the Sauromatians, were also Iranian; their country extended over the steppe east of the Don and the Volga. “

[:1-10] 10,0^10,1^10,2^10,3Unterländer, Martina (2017).„Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe “.Nature Communications.8: 14615-jild.Bibcode:2017NatCo...814615U.doi:10.1038/ncomms14615.ISSN 2041-1723.PMC5337992.PMID 28256537.„Contemporary descendants of western Scythian groups are found among various groups in the Caucasus and Central Asia, while similarities to eastern Scythian are found to be more widespread, but almost exclusively among Turkic language speaking (formerly) nomadic groups, particularly from the Kipchak branch of Turkic languages. “

[11] Järve, Mari (2019).„Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance “.Current Biology.29 (14)-jild. 2430–2441-bet.Bibcode:2019CBio...29E2430J.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019.ISSN 0960-9822.PMID 31303491.

[:2-12] 12,0^12,1^12,2Di Cosmo, Nicola „The Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China (1,500 – 221 BC) “,.The Cambridge History of ChinaLoewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L.:.Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1999 — 885–996-bet.ISBN0-521-47030-7.

[13] Rogers, Michael „Gibbon, Edward“,.Encyclopædia Iranica.New York City, United States: Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation; Brill Publishers, 2001.

[14] Jacobson, Esther.The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World. Handbuch der Orientalistik.Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers, 1995.ISBN978-9-004-09856-5.

[15] Kramrisch, Stella. "Central Asian Arts: Nomadic Cultures".Encyclopædia Britannica Online.The Śaka tribe was pasturing its herds in the Pamirs, central Tien Shan, and in the Amu Darya delta. Their gold belt buckles, jewelry, and harness decorations display sheep, griffins, and other animal designs that are similar in style to those used by the Scythians, a nomadic people living in the Kuban basin of the Caucasus region and the western section of the Eurasian plain during the greater part of the 1st millennium bc.

[16] Tokhtas’ev, Sergei R. „Cimmerians“,.Encyclopædia Iranica.New York City, United States: Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation; Brill Publishers, 1991.

[17] Watson, William (1972). „The Chinese Contribution to Eastern Nomad Culture in the Pre-Han and Early Han Periods “.World Archaeology.4 (2)-jild. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 139–149-bet.doi:10.1080/00438243.1972.9979528.JSTOR 123972.

[18] David, Bruno; McNiven, Ian J..The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art.Oxford University Press, 2018.ISBN978-0-19-060735-7.

[19] West, Stephanie „Scythians “,.Brill's Companion to HerodotusBakker, Egbert J.; de Jong, Irene J. F.; van Wees, Hans:.Brill, 2002 — 437–456-bet.ISBN978-90-04-21758-4.

[20] Davis-Kimball, Jeannine; Bashilov, Vladimir A.; Yablonsky, Leonid T..Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age.Zinat Press, 1995.ISBN978-1-885979-00-1.

[21] van Loon, Maurits Nanning (1966).Urartian Art: Its Distinctive Traits in the Light of New Excavations.Istanbul, Turkey: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut.

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