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Fermat's Enigma

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x^n + y^n = z^n, where n represents 3, 4, 5,...no solution

"I have discovered a truly marvelous demonstration of this proposition which this margin is too narrow to contain."

With these words, the seventeenth-century French mathematician Pierre de Fermat threw down the gauntlet to future generations. What came to be known as Fermat's Last Theorem looked simple; proving it, however, became the Holy Grail of mathematics, baffling its finest minds for more than 350 years. InFermat's Enigma--based on the author's award-winning documentary film, which aired on PBS's "Nova" --Simon Singh tells the astonishingly entertaining story of the pursuit of that grail, and the lives that were devoted to, sacrificed for, and saved by it. Here is a mesmerizing tale of heartbreak and mastery that will forever change your feelings about mathematics.

315 pages, Paperback

First published April 12, 1997

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About the author

Simon Singh

34books1,416followers
Simon Lehna Singh, MBE is a British author who has specialised in writing about mathematical and scientific topics in an accessible manner. He is the maiden winner of the Lilavati Award.

His written works includeFermat's Last Theorem(in the United States titledFermat's Enigma: The Epic Quest to Solve the World's Greatest Mathematical Problem),The Code Book(about cryptography and its history),Big Bang(about the Big Bang theory and the origins of the universe) andTrick or Treatment? Alternative Medicine on Trial(about complementary and alternative medicine).

He has also produced documentaries and works for television to accompany his books, is a trustee of NESTA, the National Museum of Science and Industry and co-founded the Undergraduate Ambassadors Scheme.

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Displaying 1 - 30 of 1,645 reviews
Profile Image for David Rubenstein.
827 reviews2,685 followers
October 8, 2014
Simon Singh has the ability to present a story about a mathematics problem, and tell it like a detective story. He makes the subject exciting, even though the outcome is well known. Singh intersperses history with discussions about the mathematics, and makes it quite understandable.

Singh starts with the roots of the famous Fermat's Last Theorem, by recounting the stories and mathematics of Pythagoras, Euclid, and Euler. Other, less well-known mathematicians are also given credit, for example Sophie Germain, Daniel Bernoulli, Augustin Cauchy, and Evariste Galois.

Three hundred fifty years ago, Fermat wrote the following theorem in the margin of a mathematics book:And, Fermat wrote that he had a marvelous proof, but no room in the margin for it. For centuries, mathematicians have attempted to prove the theorem, without success. It had been sort of a "holy grail" of mathematicians to prove the theorem, and many brilliant minds spent years on it. Perhaps in was unprovable, and worst of all, Kurt Godel showed that some theorems are actuallyundecidable--that is to say, it is impossible even to decide whether or not a theorem is true.

Singh recounts a fascinating story of the gifted mathematician, Paul Wolfskehl. He was very depressed, and decided to commit suicide on a particular night, at midnight. While waiting for that time to arrive, he started to read about the failed attempts to prove Fermat's Last Theorem. He became so engrossed in the subject, that he worked well past midnight. He found a gap in the logic of a predecessor, and was so proud of himself that he gained a new desire for life. And, in his will he established a fund of 100,000 marks to be given to the mathematician who first completes the proof of the theorem!

Much of the book describes how Andrew Wiles developed a growing interest in the theorem. He worked in almost total isolation for seven years, in order not to be distracted. He occasionally published little tidbits unrelated to his real endeavor, in order to dispel suspicions about what his real work entailed.

The central piece of the proof entailed proving the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture, that linked modular forms with elliptic equations. This was a linkage between two far-flung branches of mathematics that seemed to be totally unrelated. To prove the conjecture would allow incredible advances to be made. And then, Ken Ribet showed that a proof of the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture would, in effect, be a direct proof of Fermat's Last Theorem. But many people tried and failed to develop the proof. But that is exactly what Andrew Wiles worked on for so many years.

I had previously read that during Andrew Wiles' famous lecture, he just casually let the unsuspecting audience know, "and that is a proof of Fermat's Last Theorem." Well, this book tells a somewhat different story. Most of the audience had heard rumors that the third of Wiles' lectures would be of historical significance. They came prepared with cameras, and took photographs during the lecture. So, it was a surprise, but not a total surprise.

After Wiles' manuscript of the proof was sent to a publisher, six mathematicians reviewed it, and a crucial gap was found in it. Wiles worked furiously for a nightmarish year, and with the help of Richard Taylor, finally closed the gap. Today, Wiles is recognized as the one who developed the proof. But it is clear, that Wiles "stood on the shoulders of giants"; he used--and developed--mathematical techniques that had not existed just a few decades previously.

Simon Singh writes with a wonderful style. It is clear, not too jargon-heavy but contains enough mathematical "meat" to seem satisfying. The book is followed by ten appendixes that contain more details about some of the mathematics; they are not overly technical, and give the reader a better understanding of some of the issues. I highly recommend this book to everyone interested in math.
Profile Image for Tara.
514 reviews28 followers
January 3, 2018
Before delving into the book itself, I thought I’d start things off by introducing the problem it’s concerned with, just in case you aren’t already familiar with it.

So, what exactlyisFermat’s Last Theorem?

Well, basically, this is it:

As you can see, the conjecture is quite easy to understand, and yet, believe it or not, it was so remarkably difficult to prove that it took over 350 years to accomplish! The fact that Fermat (teasingly?) scribbled this rather infuriating note in the margin only added to the frustration felt by the scores of mathematicians who did battle with it over the centuries:“I have discovered a truly marvelous demonstration of this proposition that this margin is too narrow to contain.”

No doubt the cheeky bastard would’ve enjoyed Twitter:



Okay, now that that’s been taken care of, it’s time to look at the actual book.

What Kind of Book isFermat’s Enigma?

Simply put,Fermat’s Enigmais a history book. It is most definitely NOT a math book, so don’t expect to find any degree of mathematical rigor or complexity here. There are a handful of fairly simple proofs included in the appendices, but overall, the concepts under discussion are glossed over in a superficial manner, never examined in any kind of detail. If you want something that fleshes out how the proof actually works, I’m afraid you’ll have to look elsewhere. (Singh was kind enough to include quite a few “further reading suggestions” at the end of this book. While I’ve not looked into any of the titles he recommended, I assume many of those might prove more to your liking if you prefer a “math book” on the subject.)

In any case, while Singh did not pursue the actual mathematics in any real sense, he did positivelyexcelat telling the story of an utterly fascinating struggle, one which spanned hundreds of years and ensnared countless brilliant, talented minds. Readers make the acquaintance of such notable mathematicians as Pythagoras (whose work paved the way for Fermat), Leonhard Euler, Paul Wolfskehl, Sophie Germain, Daniel Bernoulli, Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Evariste Galois, Yutaka Taniyama, Goro Shimura, and of course Andrew Wiles, the man, the myth, the legend who finally proved the damn thing.

Overall, I was surprised and delighted by just how compelling the story actually was. For me, this book quickly became a veritable page-turner, one I was loathe to put aside. Some may argue that in order to accomplish this, he omitted too much relevant information, that he sacrificed depth for readability. Perhaps this is true to an extent, but in my opinion, while it was admittedly easy to read and follow, it still managed to include a fair amount of pertinent, interesting material. More importantly, it never got bogged down with unnecessary details or lost in minutiae, and never meandered down exasperating tangents, as many otherwise outstanding history books are wont to do.

And ultimately, what made this book so very stimulating was that the manner in which the story was told really made it comealive.Singh bestowed a truly suspenseful, exciting quest upon the reader, one full of twists and turns, and even *gasp* its fair share of drama. He enthusiastically demonstrated just how action-packed and exhilarating the life of the mind can be. And for accomplishing this tremendous feat, I heartily recommend the book, warts and all.

And Now, For a Few Words on the Star of the Show

Andrew Wiles is an extraordinary human being. Fascinated by Fermat’s Last Theorem since he was ten years old, he vowed to conquer that most impossible of proofs. This wasat the age of ten,mind you. I seriously can’t get past that. And then, true to his word, the little rascal grew up to become an eminent mathematician, one who finally went into seclusion for seven years in order to hack away at this tremendous proof. While a not insignificant error marred the first release of said proof, he didn’t let that deter him, but persevered and managed to rectify the error, and, within a couple of years, came out with THE proof. Holy goddamn shit.

To me, Wiles’ story was completely and utterly inspiring. I was frankly amazed by what the human mind can achieve; I think I will always be in awe of Wiles’ fierce determination and incredible tenacity. Mad respect.

Anyway, as you can probably tell, Andrew Wiles is a personal hero of mine. He is an undeniable, ultimate badass. Wayne and Garth said it best:

Profile Image for Moeen Sahraei.
29 reviews47 followers
September 2, 2021
This book is endowed with all elements of a perfect story, which are curiosity, surprising events, tragedy, ambition, alternating defeat / triumph and finally an astonishing success.
The “Fermat’s enigma” is a tremendously inspiring narrative of one of the most important and most difficult conundrums of mathematics. It was devised by the reverend Pierre de Fermat who was called “The prince of amateurs” because he had neither had any formal education in mathematics nor he had any known tutor. He learned maths by some copies of ancient books written by Euclid’s disciple named Diophantus.
When mathematicians scrutinized margins of his books they saw a short note which baffled the brightest minds for more than 350 years. Fermat claimed a groundbreaking conjecture in the margin of Diophantus book without any proof, but the line next to the proof made the case much worse for other mathematicians. he wrote beside the conjecture:
“I have a truly marvelous demonstration of this proposition which this margin is too narrow to contain”.This showed the fact that the formula had indeed a proof but it was lost. If you want to know what that theory is you can search on google because it can’t be properly explained in this review.
Since the last 350 years the formula had been attacked by the most eminent mathematicians including Leonhard Euler but none of them could prove it thoroughly.
After so many years of fruitless endeavor Andrew wiles managed to prove it. For Andrew the Fermat’s last theorem was personally and emotionally significant because he had been in love with the theorem since he first encountered it when he was just ten years old. After thirty years he used so many new mathematical techniques and finally he put more than 8 years on proving this conjecture in order to firmly prove it and finally he did.
This book is only recommended for those who appreciate the true value of mathematics.
Profile Image for Luís.
2,133 reviews924 followers
February 15, 2023
That's an excellent history of mathematics from antiquity to the present day. The author skillfully captures the pedagogical trick of the Last Theorem. This"mathematical siren,..., which attracted geniuses to destroy their hopes"better is a common thread that compellingly guides us through anecdotes, concepts very well explained in the maze of mathematics. The author gives both a technical and societal dimension to his story, thereby maintaining the reader's attention from start to finish.
Very successful. Good reading.
Profile Image for Barry Cunningham.
Author1 book190 followers
July 23, 2017
Being a scientist of long standing and loving all aspects of science and maths, Fermat's Last Theorem in itself was a wonderful mystery, what I would give to see Fermat's note book with a note in the margin about cubic numbers as opposed to squares. A very trite remark, too lengthy to write in the margin so it is elsewhere, and no one has ever found it or managed to prove his statement, until - - - this book is a brilliant read, you would think it would be as dry as dust, but no! It is a superb account of the proof of the last theorem from Fermat's notebook to be proven. The only thing that still niggles at me, although the mathematical proof is fabulous, it uses modern techniques not available to Fermat, so it is proven but how the hell did Fermat do it??????
A brilliant book, beautifully written a tremendous historical question answered in a very modern way, fabulous, well done for readability.
Profile Image for Muhammad .
150 reviews56 followers
February 28, 2016
“সমকোণী ত্রিভুজের অতিভুজের ওপর অঙ্কিত বর্গক্ষেত্রের ক্ষেত্রফল অপর দুই বাহুর ওপর অঙ্কিত বর্গক্ষেত্রদ্বয়ের ক্ষেত্রফলের সমষ্টির সমান” -বাংলা মধ্যম শিক্ষা ব্যবস্থার ছাত্র-ছাত্রীরা বিজ্ঞান, ব্যবসা, মানবিক ইত্যাদি ‘শ্রেণীগত পার্থক্য’ভেদে সকলেই নবম শ্রেণীতে ‘পীথাগোরাসের উপপাদ্য’ নামে পরিচিত উপপাদ্য-২৩ পড়ে এসেছেন।


চিত্রের সমকোণী ত্রিভুজের (অর্থাৎ যে ত্রিভুজের একটি বাহু অপর বাহুর সাথে ৯০ ডিগ্রী কোণে অবস্থিত) অতিভুজ c, লম্ব a এবং ভূমি b। পীথাগোরাসের উপপাদ্য অনুসারে a^2 + b^2 = c^2। a, b এবং c এর কিছু মান বসিয়ে সমীকরণের দু পাশ সমান করে ফেলা যায়, সবচেয়ে সহজ একটি উদাহরণ হলো:

৩^২ + ৪^২ = ৫^২
বা, ৯ + ১৬ = ২৫

দু হাজার বছরেরও বেশী পুরনো এই উপপাদ্যটি আজ আমাদের প্রতিদিনের জীবনে অসংখ্যবার ব্যবহৃত হচ্ছে। এই উপপাদ্য দিয়ে টিভিস্ক্রীন/ কম্পিউটার মনিটর নির্মাতা পর্দার আকার মাপছেন, জ্যোতির্বিদ তারার মাঝের দূরত্ব গুনছেন, ইলেক্ট্রিক্যাল ইঞ্জিনিয়ার ফেজর কারেন্ট হিসেব করছেন, সিভিল ইঞ্জিনিয়ার লোড পরিমাপ করছেন, অর্থনীতিবিদ যোগান আর চাহিদার হিসেব মেলাচ্ছেন......মোট কথা, আমাদের আজকের সভ্যতা যে বিন্দুতে দাঁড়িয়ে আছে তার পেছনে আছে a^2 +b^2 = c^2 জাদুকাঠিসরূপ এই সমীকরণটির অকল্পনীয় অবদান। এই উপপাদ্যটি ছাড়া প্রকৌশলবিদ্যার কোন একটি শাখাও সচল নয়! এ লেখার উদ্দেশ্য পীথাগোরাসের বা তাঁর উপপাদ্যের জয়গান গাওয়া নয় (উপপাদ্যটি আদৌ পীথাগোরাসের নিজস্ব উদ্ভাবিত কিছুও নয়! তাঁর জন্মের বহু আগে থেকেই একাধিক সভ্যতা এই উপপাদ্যটির ব্যবহার করে আসছিলো)। পীথাগোরাসের উপপাদ্য বিভিন্ন প্রকৌশল বিদ্যার অপরিহার্য অঙ্গ হিসেবে এমনিই গরীয়ান, কিন্তু আরো একটি বিষয় উপপাদ্যের সমীকরণটিকে অনন্য করে তুলেছে। ৩৭৭ বছর আগে, ১৬৩৭ সালে ফরাসী গণিতবিদ পিয়ে দ্যা ফার্মা একটি উপপাদ্য দাঁড় ক��ালেন। “নিম্নোক্ত সমীকরণটির কোন সমাধান পূর্ন সংখ্যায় কখনোই পাওয়া যাবেনাঃ

a^n + b^n = c^n যেখানে a, b, c ও n পূর্ণ সংখ্যা ও n এর মান ২ এর চেয়ে বড় যে কোন সংখ্যা "

অর্থাৎ, a^3 + b^3 কখনোই c^3 এর সমান হবেনা, a^4 + b^4 কখনোই c^4 এর সমান হবেনা……a^100 + b^100 কখনই c^100 এর সমান হবেনা……a^9999999999999…….(অসীম) + b^9999999999999…….(অসীম) কখনোই c^9999999999999…….(অসীম) এর সমান হবেনা; n এর মান ২ এর ওপর যে কোন পূর্ণ সংখ্যার জন্যই সমীকরণটির কোন সমাধান নেই। “সংখ্যার সংখ্যা কত” এমনটা কেউ বলতে পারবেনা কখনোই। সবচেয়ে বড় শেষ সংখ্যাটির সাথে এক যোগ করে দিলেই আরেকটি নতুন সংখ্যা তৈরী হয়ে যায়। অসীম সংখ্যক সংখ্যার একটি দিয়েও a^n + b^n = c^n সমীকরণটির সমাধান করা যাবেনা? বেশ তো, পরখ করে দেখলেই হয়! a, b, c ও n এর বিভিন্ন মান (অবশ্যই পূর্ন সংখ্যায়) নিয়ে একটার পর একটা হিসেব করেই দেখা যাক। কিছুদূর এগোলেই অবশ্য বোঝা যায় কি ভয়ানক দুঃসাধ্য একটি কাজ এটি! চলক বা ভ্যারিয়েবল গুলোর মান বাড়াবার সাথে সাথে হিসেবটাও ভীষণ বড় ও কঠিন হয়ে পড়ে। আজকের দিনে না হয় কম্পিউটার আছে, সেকেন্ডের মাঝে যা লক্ষ লক্ষ হিসেব করে দেবে, ৩৫০ বছর আগে ফার্মা কিভাবে এমন একটি দাবী জানালেন? ফার্মা কি একের পর এক মান হাতে বসিয়ে হিসেব করে দেখেছেন? সেটি বাস্তব সম্মত কোন উপায় নয়। বাকী থাকলো যুক্তির প্রয়োগে উপপাদ্যটি প্রমাণ করা। ফার্মা অত্যন্ত খেয়ালী একজন গণিতবিদ ছিলেন। তিনি ডায়োফেন্টাস এর অ্যারিথমেটিকা বইটি সবসময় বগলদাবা করে রাখতেন এবং কোন থিওরেম তাঁর মাথায় এলে সেটা এই বইয়ের মার্জিন এ লিখে রাখতেন। ফার্মা প্রায় ৩০০ এর মতো সমস্যা লিখে গেছেন এই মার্জিন এ। আলোচ্য সমস্যাটিকে তাঁর শেষ উপপাদ্য বলা হয়ে থাকে। ফার্মা তাঁর অ্যারিথমেটিকা বইয়ের মার্জিনে সমস্যাটি লিখে নিচে লিখেছিলেন, “এই উপপাদ্যটির একটি দারুণ সমাধান আমার জানা আছে, কিন্তু এই মার্জিনটি তা লেখার জন্য যথেষ্ট চওড়া নয়”!
একটি অঙ্ক করতে সর্বোচ্চ কত সময় লাগতে পারে? ১ ঘন্টা? ১ দিন? ১ বছর? ১ যুগ? ফার্মার শেষ এই উপপাদ্যটি ৩৫৮ বছর ধরে পৃথিবীর বড় বড় গণিতবিদদের মুখ ভেংচিয়ে গেছে। ৩৫৮ বছরেও কেউ উপপাদ্যটি প্রমান করতে পারেননি! মাত্রই ১৯ বছর আগে ১৯৯৫ সালে প্রিন্সটন বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ের অধ্যাপক অ্যান্ড্রু উইলস অবশেষে উপপাদ্যটির সমাধান করলেন, দীর্ঘ ৮ বছর যুদ্ধ করবার পর। যে বিপুল গবেষণা ও পড়ালেখা এই সমাধানটির পেছনে বিনিয়োগ করতে হয়েছে উইলস কে, তাকে যুদ্ধ বলাটাই মানায়। “Fermat's Enigma: The Epic Quest to Solve the World's Greatest Mathematical Problem"-বইয়ে সাইমন সিং বিবৃত করেছেন উইলস এর সেই ৮ বছর ব্যাপী সংগ্রাম এর গল্প। সিং এর লেখায় এই বইটি উইলস এর অসাধারণ ধৈর্য্য ও অধ্যবসায় এর চমৎকার একটি ডকুমেন্টারি হয়ে থাকলো।

মুহম্মদ জাফর ইকবাল এর ‘নিউরনে আবারো অনুরণন’ যাঁরা পড়েছেন, তাঁরা ফার্মা সংক্রান্ত এ তথ্যগুলো আগেই জানেন। জাফর ইকবাল লিখেছিলেন অ্যান্ড্রু উইলস গণিতের খুব আধুনিক কিছু বিষয়ের ব্যবহার করে ফার্মার উপপাদ্যটি প্রমাণ করেছেন, যা ফার্মার সময়ে উদ্ভাবিতই হয়নি। সাইমন সিং খুব সহজ ভাষায় বর্ণনা করেছেন গণিতের নতুন সেই সংযোজনগুলোর কথা। ১০ বছর বয়েসে অ্যান্ড্রু উইলস প্রথম ফার্মার সমস্যার সাথে পরিচিত হন, তখনি তিনি এটি সমাধান করাকে জীবনের একমাত্র লক্ষ্য হিসেবে দাঁড় করিয়ে ফেলেছিলেন। ৩৯ বছর বয়েসে এসে প্রমাণ সম্পন্ন করতে উইলসকে প্রচুর নতুন বিষয় শিখতে হয়েছে। বিষয়গুলো এত চমৎকার যে কিছু প্রাথমিক ধারণা এখানে জুড়ে দেয়ার লোভ সামলাতে পারছিনা! উইলস এর প্রমাণটি মূলত দাঁড়িয়ে আছে তানিইয়ামা-শিমুরা ধারণা (কঞ্জেকচার) এর ওপর। তানিইয়ামা-শিমুরা কঞ্জেকচার বলে সকল এলিপ্টিক্ ইকুয়েশন ই মডিউলার ফর্ম! খুব কঠিন হয়ে গেলো কি?

গণিতে x^3 – x^2 = y^2 + y এ ধরণের সমীকরণকে বলা হয়এলিপ্টিক্ ইকুয়েশন। একটি সমীকরণের অসীম সংখ্যক সমাধান থাকতে পারে, প্রত্যেকটি নিয়ে আলাদা ভাবে কাজ করতে যাওয়াটা নিতান্ত বোকামী। সমীকরণের সম্ভাব্য সকল সমাধানকে সসীম একটি ছোট্ট স্পেসে প্রকাশ করতে পারলে কাজটা এক্কেবারেই সহজ হয়ে পড়ে। মানুষ ঘড়ি আবিষ্কার করেছে সময়কে একটা ছকে ফেলে কাজ সহজ করে ফেলবার জন্য। ঘড়ি না থাকলে বিশাল বিস্তৃত সময়ের কোন বিন্দুতে আমরা আছি তা কখনো বুঝতেও পারতাম না (এখনও যে খুব পারি তাও নয়, তবু একটা ধারণা অন্তত করতে পারি)। অমুক কাজটা রাতে করে দেবো বললে তা খুব বিভ্রান্তিকর শোনায়, কারণ রাত অনেকগুলো অন্ধকার সময়ের যোগফল; রাতে কখন কাজটা হবে তা নিশ্চিত হওয়া যায়না। রাত ন’টায় করে দেবো বললে মাথাটা পরিষ্কার হয়ে যায়। সময়ের এই সঠিক পরিমাপের জন্যই মানুষ ঘড়িতে সময়কে ১২ টা ভাগে ভাগ করে নিয়েছে। সমীকরণ সমাধানের ক্ষেত্রেও এই বুদ্ধি খাটানো যায়।



চিত্রের ঘড়িটি ফাইভ-ক্লক অ্যারিথমেটিক সিস্টেম। ৪ থেকে ১ ঘর সামনে আগালে আমরা ০ এ পৌঁছাই, অর্থাৎ, সাধারণ গাণিতিক হিসেবে যেখানে ৪ + ১ = ৫, ফাইভ-ক্লক অ্যারিথমেটিক সিস্টেমে ৪ + ১ = ০। ৪ থেকে ২ ঘর সামনে আগালে পৌঁছাই ১ এ। সাধারণ গাণিতিক হিসেবে ৪ + ২ = ৬, ৫-ঘড়ি পদ্ধতিতে ৪ + ২ = ১…ইত্যাদি।
ওপরে উল্লেখিত x^3 – x^2 = y^2 + y সমীকরণটির সমাধান ৪টিঃ

x = 0, y = 0
x = 0, y = 4
x = 1, y = 0
x = 1, y = 4

শেষ সমাধানটি (x = 1, y = 4) সাধারণ গাণিতিক হিসেবে ঠিক গ্রহণযোগ্য না হলেও ৫-ঘড়ি পদ্ধতিতে মাপে মাপে মিলে যায়ঃ
x^3 – x^2 = y^2 + y
1^3 -1^2 = 4^2 + 4
1-1 = 16 + 4
0 = 20
যেহেতু ৫-ঘড়ি পদ্ধতিতে ৫ = ০, ৫ এর সকল গুণিতকও (৫, ১০, ১৫, ২০……) তাই ০ ই হবে। ৫-ঘড়ি পদ্ধতিতে সংখ্যা ছিলো ৫টি (০,১,২,৩,৪), আর সমাধান ছিলো ৪টি, তাই একে E5 = 4 লেখা হয়। যদি ৭ ঘড়ি পদ্ধতি ব্যবহার করা হতো (অর্থাৎ ঘড়িতে দেয়া সংখ্যাগুলো হতো ০,১,২,৩,৪,৫,৬) তাহলে সমাধান হতো ৯টি। এটাকে এখন একটা সিরিজ আকারে লিখে ফেলা যেতে পারেঃ (E সিরিজ)


ইত্যাদি।

এবার আসা যাক মডিউলার ফর্ম এ।


চিত্রের x ও y অক্ষের মাঝে আটকে পড়া বর্গটিররোটেশনালরিফ্লেকশনাল সিমেট্রিবিদ্যমান, অর্থাৎ বর্গটিকে একই অবস্থানে রেখে উল্টে দিলেও এটি দেখতে একইরকম লাগবে, কোন প��িবর্তন ধরা পড়বেনা, এটি হল রোটেশনাল সিমেট্রি। যদি x এবং y অক্ষ বরাবর দুটি আয়না রেখে বর্গটিকে উল্টে পাল্টে ঘোরানো হয়, তাহলেও মনে হবে বর্গের প্রথম অবস্থার কোন পরিবর্তন হয়নি, এটাই রিফ্লেকশনাল সিমেট্রি। যদি এখন বর্গটিকে ধাক্কা দিয়ে সামনের দিকে সরিয়ে দেয়া হয়, তা হলে x এবং y অক্ষের সাপেক্ষে বর্গের অবস্থানের পরিবর্তনটি স্পষ্ট ধরা পড়বে চোখে, অর্থাৎ এর ট্রান্সলেশনাল সিমেট্রি নেই।



এই চিত্রে এবার অসীম সংখ্যক বর্গ আঁকা হলো, x ও y অক্ষের সাপেক্ষে। এই বর্গগুলোর রোটেশনাল ও রিফ্লেকশনাল সিমেট্রি তো আছেই, এদেরট্রান্সলেশনাল সিমেট্রিও বিদ্যমান। কারণ, বর্গগুলো কোনভাবে চলতে শুরু করলে অক্ষদুটির সাপেক্ষে কোন বর্গটি কোথায় গেল বা তাদের অবস্থানের আদৌ কোন পরিবর্তন হলো কিনা তা আর বোঝার উপায় থাকবেনা। সবদিক থেকেই অসীম সংখ্যক বর্গগুলোর সিমেট্রি বা সমতা একইরকম থাকবে। এটিকে ঠিক মডিউলার ফর্ম বলা চলেনা, কারণ মডিউলার ফর্ম পাওয়া যায় চার ডিমেনশন এর স্পেসে, আমরা আ���াদের তিন ডিমেনশন (দৈর্ঘ্য, প্রস্থ ও উচ্চতা) এর জগতের অভিজ্ঞতা দিয়ে চার ডিমেনশন এর বস্তুর ধারণা করতে পারবোনা। মডিউলার ফর্মের সাথে সিমেট্রির সম্পর্কের বিষয়টি ইঙ্গিত করবার জন্যই বর্গক্ষেত্র সংক্রান্ত আলোচনা এখানে! চার ডিমেনশন এ বাস করা আশ্চর্য সিমেট্রিক মডিউলার ফর্মেরা নির্দিষ্ট কিছু উপকরণ (ইনগ্রেডিয়েন্টস) দিয়ে গঠিত। প্রত্যেকটি মডিউলার ফর্ম ই একে অন্যের চেয়ে আলাদা এই উপকরণের বেশকমের কারণে। উপকরণের সংখ্যানুসারে সাজালে মডিউলার ফর্মের জন্যও একটি সিরিজ পাওয়া যায়, এলিপ্টিক কার্ভের E সিরিজের মতো, একে বলা হয় M সিরিজ। ১৯৫০ এর দশকে দুই জাপানী গণিতবিদ বন্ধু ইয়ুতাকা তানিইয়ামা ও গোরো শিমুরা লক্ষ্য করেন এলিপ্টিক কার্ভের E সিরিজ আর মডিউলার ফর্মের M সিরিজ একেবারে হুবহু মিলে যাচ্ছে, এ থেকে তাঁরা ধারণা করলেন সকল এলিপ্টিক সমীকরণ ই আসলে মডিউলার ফর্ম। তবে এটির পক্ষে কোন প্রমাণ তাঁরা করে যেতে পারেননি, তানিইয়ামা’র অকস্মাৎ আত্নহত্যার দরুন।

তানিইয়ামা-শিমুরা কঞ্জেকচার দিয়েই যে ফার্মার উপপাদ্য প্রমাণিত করা যাবে এ ধারণা দিয়েছিলেন জার্মান গণিতবিদগেরহার্ড ফ্রে। “মনে করা যাক ফার্মার সমস্যাটির একটি সমাধান আছে”-এই অনুমানের পথে হেঁটে ফ্রে এক নতুন ধরণের এলিপ্টিক কার্ভ আবিষ্কার করলেন যা মডিউলার নয়, তানিইয়ামা-শিমুরার কঞ্জেকচারের সরাসরি বিরোধী। অ্যান্ড্রু উইলস যখন আট বছরের দীর্ঘ সংগ্রাম শেষে উপপাদ্যটি প্রমাণ করলেন, তাঁর প্রমাণটি শুধু ফার্মার সমস্যাটির সমাধানের কাজেই আসেনি, বরং তা গণিত ও নাম্বার থিওরির একাধিক শাখার বিস্তারেও বড় ভূমিকা রেখেছে। তানিইয়ামা-শিমুরা কঞ্জেকচার এখন আর শুধুই একটি কঞ্জেকচার বা অনুমান নয়, এটি একটি স্থাপিত সত্য। গাণিতিক এই তত্ত্বগুলো পরস্পরের সাথে এত দৃঢ়ভাবে সম্পর্কিত, যে শুধু একটির প্রমাণ-ই বাকিগুলোর প্রমাণের জন্য যথেষ্ট, অনেকটা যেন ডমিনো এফেক্টঃ


অ্যান্ড্রু উইলস বেশ কিছু আধুনিক গাণিতিক হাতিয়ারে নিজেকে সজ্জিত করে ফার্মার উপপাদ্যটি প্রমাণ করেন। এর মধ্যে প্রধান দুটি হলোআইওয়াসাওয়া থিওরীকোলিভাগিন-ফ্ল্যাখ মেথড। সদ্য রপ্ত এই বিদ্যাগুলোর প্রয়োগের বেলায় উইলসকে প্রায়ই প্রচন্ড হতাশাজনক পরিস্থিতির ভেতর দিয়ে যেতে হয়েছে। এই টেকনিকগুলো কত কঠিন সে বিষয়ে উইলস বলেছেন সর্বোচ্চ শিক্ষা প্রাপ্ত একজন পেশাদার গণিতবিদেরও এই বিষয়গুলো আয়ত্তে আনতে অন্তত দু-তিন মাস লাগবেই! ফার্মার সমস্যাটির জটিলতার আরেকটি নির্দেশক এটি।

১৬৩৭ সালে তানিইয়ামা-শিমুরা কঞ্জেকচারের অস্তিত্ব ছিলোনা। ছিলোনা কোলিভাগিন-ফ্ল্যাখ মেথড, আইওয়াসাওয়া থিওরী, মডিউলার ফর্ম, মিয়াওকা অসমতা-এসবের কিছুই। মাত্র ১টি গাণিতিক সমস্যার প্রমাণে ১৫০ পৃষ্ঠা জুড়ে এতগুলো টেকনিকের ব্যবহার ইতিহাস আগে কখনো দেখেনি। উইলস এর এই প্রমাণটি ফার্মার আসল প্রমাণ নয়। ফার্মা কি আদৌ তাঁর সমস্যাটির সমাধান বের করেছিলেন? এক সময় হয়তো এই রহস্যেরও সমাধান হবে, হয়তো আরো অনেক সহজ কোন পদ্ধতি আবিষ্কৃত হবে, তবু অ্যান্ড্রু উইলস এর ১টিই অঙ্ক কষার পেছনে ৮ বছরের পরিশ্রমের গল্প চির অম্লান থাকবে। গণিতের সাথে মোটেই সম্পৃক্ত নয় এমন অনেকেই ৮ বছর লাগিয়ে একটি অঙ্ক করার হাস্যকর দিকটি বের করে উইলসকে নিয়ে নিয়মিত তামাশা করেছে। যে পরিমাণ পরিশ্রম ও লেখাপড়া উইলসকে করতে হয়েছে তার সম্পর্কে কোন ধারণাই হয়তো এই মানুষগুলোর কখনোই হবেনা। মানুষ হিসেবে অন্য মানুষের এ আচরণগুলো মেনে নেয়াটা প্রচণ্ড কষ্টকর ও হতাশাদায়ক এবং ক্ষেত্রবিশেষে মানুষকে সম্মান করার ব্যাপারে মনকে সন্দিহান করে তোলে, সন্দেহ নেই, তবু উইলস এর গল্প শেষ পর্যন্ত মনে করিয়ে দেয়, মানুষ ই তো পারে!
Profile Image for Manny.
Author35 books15.1k followers
March 10, 2009
I guess the author does a reasonable job. But when I reached the end, I still didn't feel I understood at all how the proof worked. Probably that's just because it's so bloody hard. I got a lot more though out ofPrime Obsession,Derbyshire's book on the Riemann Hypothesis, where the author opens up the box and shows you some of the actual math...
Profile Image for Cassandra Kay Silva.
716 reviews291 followers
June 20, 2011
This is the kind of book that we non mathematical minds can easily digest and love. It gives you an epic scope of the number of minds that it takes to build new ideas. I doubt if Fermat had actually solved this theorem correctly, but this is impossible to prove. Fermat's theorem however was not impossible to prove! It was solved! Thanks to the efforts of many men (and women!) over many lifetimes and one final man who had the determination and persistence to finish the unthinkable. This book has a lot of wonderful elements, and really exemplifies a love of mathematics. Although if you want to actually understand the theorem this book may not be for you! I can honestly say reading it did not put the theorem in any more digestible light than it started out with. Perhaps it was to the authors advantage to skip the technicalities and focus on the enjoyment of the journey. I personally loved this approach, but it may not be for everyone, especially if you are actually looking to understand the theorem (a massive undertaking that is really not in my repertoire to comment on).
Profile Image for Riku Sayuj.
658 reviews7,345 followers
December 3, 2011
Simon converts what could have been a dry chronicle of proofs into an ode full of excitement, inspiration and intrigue worthy of a gothic love affair. Full review to follow.
Profile Image for Brian Clegg.
Author191 books2,930 followers
June 30, 2023
This is the first popular maths book I ever read - and the one that persuaded me I wanted to be involved in the field of popular science. Just as the US publishers of Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone reckoned the US public couldn’t cope with the word ‘philosopher’ and changed the title, this was originally called Fermat’s Enigma in the US, but such is its longstanding acclaim it's ended up with the correct name there too. Crazy assumptions from publishers apart, it’s the superb story of a bizarre little problem that no one could solve until the ever-wily mathematician Fermat scribbled in a margin that he had a wonderful solution, only there wasn’t room to write it down.

Fermat may well have been boasting, but his marginal claim threw down a gauntlet to hundreds of mathematicians who were to follow in his footsteps and fail, until it was finally achieved in the 20th century. Don’t worry if the maths itself isn't of great interest to you – the story will, both in its historical context and in the insight into the work and nature of modern mathematicians - at least, relatively modern given the book is a good 25 years old now.

In some ways the star of the book is Andrew Wiles, the British mathematician who pretty well single-handedly cracked the problem with an unusual level of secrecy, rather than the typical sharing approach of the profession. But equally it’s Fermat himself.

Whether or not Fermat actually had a solution is a moot point – but he certainly didn’t have Wiles’ complex approach and it's entirely possible it was a boast that he could have fulfilled. It seems so difficult to come up with a straightforward solution to this problem that Fermat has to be more than a little doubted. The nature of Wiles' solution is such that many mathematicians struggled with it, and Singh can only really give us an impression of what was involved. Any attempt to give meaning to the 100 plus page proof requires mathematics that is beyond the casual reader, and it's probably fair to say that bringing any clarity to the nature of the proof is the weakest part of this book.

Like all the best popular science books – and this certainly is one of the best – it brings in a whole range of extras historically and mathematically to add to the fascinating cast. Singh's writing style is fluid and genial. He came from a TV background, and the book combines the accessibility of that genre with the ability to go into far more depth than a TV documentary can. It's a milestone in the development of the popular science genre.
Profile Image for Bruce.
443 reviews77 followers
April 3, 2009
What a fun book this was (thanks, Trevor, for the recommendation)! There are many reasons I think I like (good) nonfiction -- a sense of direct relevance, gravitas, frequent insights into the workings of the universe (and people), but mostly for knowledge narcs -- high levels of information density served up into an intriguing package by someone else who has undertaken the heavy lifting (research, organization, thinking). So, here in Singh's work I get a solid lay understanding not only of the proof to Fermat's Last Theorem, but of much of mathematics (and the lives of mathematicians) since the seventeenth century.

I've been thinking also about what attracts me to books on mathematical topics -- the works by Martin Gardner, William Poundstone, and the various other authors in the company of whose thoughts I've had pleasure to spend a week or more. What I've come away with, is that the best of them feed off surprises, those bits of counterintuitive anecdotes that leave you blurting out, "Huh. How about that," and then looking madly around for someone to tell. Like a book of jokes, riddles, or puzzles that provides immediate gratification in the back of the book,Fermat's Enigmaplugs at least ten conundrums (and their easy-to-understand, logical solutions) into its appendices. For example -- say you're unlucky enough to be forced into a three-way duel. If everyone gets to take turns in order of their skill such that worst shoots first, what should the worst do? Aim at the best in the hopes of getting lucky and eliminating the most dangerous gunsel? Nope, the correct answer is to pass up the turn in the hopes that your first shot will get to be expended against only one remaining combatant. That way, even if you miss, you at least had a chance to take aim at the only person able to shoot back.

Pierre Fermat turns out to have been quite the prankster, often tweaking professional mathematicians and academics by mailing them problems they knew full well he had already solved. For those who don't keep this type of trivia at the forefront of their brains, Fermat's the French recluse (and hanging circuit jurist) who once famously scribbled in a copy of Diophantus'Arithmeticathat x^n + y^n ≠ z^n for any numberngreater than 2, a propostion for which he had "a truly marvelous demonstration… which this margin is too narrow to contain." This gets to be Fermat's Last Theorem, simply because it ends up being the last of his conundrums to be proven (not necessarily the last one he wrote). Just think, were it not for the scrupulous care taken by Fermat's son to go through and publish all of Fermat, Sr.'s writings, the world would not have been tantalized by this particular gem for over 350 YEARS .

Andrew Wiles published the first (and only?) proof in 1994, andEnigmadoes a tremendous job of walking the reader through not only the stunning depth of his intellectual achievement, but its significance as well. Suffice it to say that I was happy here to read that Taniyama-Shimura get their well-earned due and that modular and elliptical equations can finally be understood to be mathematically analogous (whether or not I have any idea what modular equations actually are). Still, all of this leads to what I think is an even more tantalizing problem. We now know that all of Fermat's conjectures ultimately proved to be solvable and that Fermat's own notes would seem to indicate that he had indeed apparently found ways to solve each of them. But there is no doubt that Fermat's solution could not have relied on the up-to-the-minute maths Wiles employs over 200 pages. So if it was really the limitations of the margin and not of Fermat that inhibited publication… what was Fermat's proof?
Profile Image for Annie.
1,023 reviews373 followers
April 25, 2019
Strap in, guys. I’m going to walk you through the history of how Fermat’s Last Theorum was proved, all in one little (okay, big) review. And I can do this because of this awesome, semi-accessible, frequently tangent-taking, but mostly, thisdeeply fascinatingbook.

----------STEP ONE: THE THEORUM----------

For the unenlightened, Fermat’s Last Theorum is this: you probably know the Pythagorean theorum, a² + b² = c², which explains that if you square the shorter two sides of a right-angled triangle and add them together, you get the value of third side squared. This is easily proved (that is, demonstrated to be completely, utterly, logically true via a mathematical proof, using axioms known to be true, which is just like a logic proof if you’ve done philosophy. Or a geometry proof, if you went to 9th grade). Take any triangle, and this will be true. There are infinite solutions to this equation—literally infinite values of A, B, and C which will render this solution true.

However, Fermat discovered that the formula an + bn = cn where n > 2 has NO whole number solutions. (Go ahead, give it a whirl. I’ll wait).

Then he challenged the mathematical community to create a mathematical proof demonstrating this must be true. While tantalizing them with the knowledge he’d already created a proof for this with a scribbled note in the margin of his notebook: “I have a truly marvelous demonstration of this proposition which this margin is too narrow to contain.”

Asshole.

So sparked centuries of people trying to write this proof, to no avail. Until Professor Andrew Wiles (who has the most apropos name ever—he has wiles indeed) of Cambridge, in 1993.

***

For clarity, this is Fermat’s Equation (which I’ll refer to as FE): an + bn = cn where n > 2

And THIS is Fermat’s Last Theorum (which I’ll refer to as FLT): “There are no solutions to Fermat’s Equation”

***

----------TANGENT: GODEL----------

At this point, it’s been assumed that math is logically perfect—that if you correctly build a proof using axioms (like m + n = n + m), it must be true (and if it’s proven to be true, nothing can prove it to be false). This is known as “axiomatic set theory.”

Along came Godel (who is analyzed to death by my beloved, Doug Hofstadter- seehereandhere). His ideas are as follows:

1. If axiomatic set theory is consistent, then there have to be theorems that can’t be proved or disproved. Why? Because of paradoxes. Godel translated the following statement into mathematical notation: “This statement has no proof.” If that’s false, then you COULD create a proof for that statement—however, that would make the statement false, so how could you have a proof for that? So it has to be true. But if it’s true, it can’t be proved because that’s what it literally says. It’s a mathematical statement that is true, but could never be proved to be true (an “undecidable statement” ).

2. There’s no way to prove that axiomatic set theory is consistent; in a way, it’s one of those “undecidable statement” that’s true but can’t be proved to be true.

Interestingly, this parallels the physicist Heisenberg’s discovery of the uncertainty principle, but we won’t get into that.

Now, there aren’t very many of those undecidable statements. Godel couldn’t really point to any other undecidable statements besides the one above, so people assumed they were found only in the most extreme math and would probably never even be encountered.

Welp. A young student named Paul Cohen at Stanford discovered a way to test whether a question is undecidable, and in doing so, discovered several more.

Which sparked some fear in mathematicians. What if Fermat’s Last Theorum was undecidable?! What if they were wasting their time trying to prove the unprovable?

Interestingly, if it were an undecidable statement, it couldn’t be proved—yet it wouldhaveto be true. The theorum says “there are no whole numbers to the equation an + bn = cn where n > 2.” If this were false, then it would be possible to prove this by offering a solution to this—by finding a whole number N that’s greater than 2 that allows the equation to be solved. Which would make it a decidable statement, which is a contradiction. So it can’t be false and also be an undecidable statement. In other words, Fermat’s Last Theorum might be totally true but there might be no way to prove it.

----------STEP TWO: TANIYAMA-SHIMURA CONJECTURE----------

Modular forms are a mathematical tool, sort of like impossible forms or shapes, that reveal a lot about how numbers are related.

The Taniyama-Shimura Conjecture (TSC), created by two Japanese mathematicians (one of whom tragically and abruptly killed himself quite young) says every modular form is related to a specific elliptic equation (elliptic equations were Andrew Wiles’s main area of study; they’re a type of equation, not super important that you understand them).

The fact that these were unified meant there’s a kind of Rosetta stone that’s been discovered:“Simple intuitions in the modular world translate into deep truths in the elliptic world, and vice versa. Very profound problems in the elliptic world can get solved sometimes by translating them using this Rosetta stone into the modular world, and discovering that we have the insights and tools in the modular world to treat the translated problem. Back in the elliptic world we would have been at a loss.”

Beyond that awesomeness, the TSC suggests something even more interesting: that possibly all of mathematics, all the different worlds of mathematics, might have parallels in other worlds, as with the elliptic world and the modular world. All of mathematics might be unified—arguably the absolute ultimate goal of abstract mathematics, because this would give us the most complete picture, and the biggest arsenal of tools to solve mathematical problems.

----------STEP THREE: RIBET’S THEORUM----------

This is all important for FLT because of something called Ribet’s Theorum (Ribet was a colleague of Wiles). Ribet’s Theorum goes like this: the imagined solution to FE can be translated into an elliptic equation. And that elliptic equation doesn’t seem to have a modular world equivalent. But the TSC claims that every elliptic equation must be related to a modular form.

So if you can PROVE that the elliptic form of the solution to FE has no modular form (which we can! The proof was done in 1986), the following is true: if the TSC is true (i.e. all elliptic equations have modular forms), and the elliptic form of the imagined solution to FE has no modular form, then the imagined solution cannot exist, proving FLT.

So now, all we have to do is prove that the TSC is true, and FLT is automatically proven to be true.

And this—THIS—is what Andrew Wiles focused on. Proving the TSC (Taniyama-Shimura Conjecture).

----------STEP FOUR: PROVING THE THEORUM----------

Wiles finally succeeded when he applied a new method called the Kolyvagin-Flach method, which groups elliptic equations into families and then proves that an elliptic equation in that family has a modular form; if that elliptic equation has a modular form, then all other elliptic equations in that family also has a modular form.

However, the Kolyvagin-Flach method has to be adapted for each family of elliptic equations. Wiles successfully adapted the method for all families of elliptic equations, thereby proving that all elliptic equations have modular forms (which, as a reminder, is basis of the Taniyama-Shimura Conjecture, and proving the TSC proves FLT).

Two months before I was born, in 1993, he proved FLT in a series of 3 lectures.

Kinda. Actually, there was a minor flaw in his proof (essentially, he might have failed to properly adapt the Kolyvagin-Flach method for some of the families of equations) but it doesn’t really matter because a year later, Wiles published a work-around to that flaw, so he proved FLT once and for all.

----------CONCLUSION----------

All I can think about is: maybe if math looked like this, if THIS had been our material in high school—maybe then I wouldn’t have disliked it. Maybe other people wouldn’t, either. What a shoddy job we do teaching our children the wonder of learning.
Profile Image for Trevor.
1,357 reviews23k followers
December 9, 2007
This book is as interesting as a detective story while being about quite advanced mathematics - as such it is quite a book showing the remarkable skill of its writer to explain complex ideas in ways that are always readable and enjoyable.

A mathematician finds a simple proof to what seems like a deceptively simple problem of mathematics - that pythagoras's theorem only works if the terms are squared, and not if they are any other power up to infinity. Sounds dull. Except that the mathematician jots down that he has found this proof, but not what the proof is. And for hundredsd of years the greatest minds in mathematics have tried to find this simple proof and been beaten by the problem time and again.

This really is a delightful book and one that gives an insight into how mathematicians think about the world. The proof of Pythagoras's theorem given in this book is so simple that the beauty of mathematical proof is made plain to everyone. Just a little knowledge of algebra is needed for this part of the book - the rest requires no maths at all.
Profile Image for Roberto.
627 reviews1 follower
August 25, 2017

Un teorema è per sempre

Un tale Fermat, che nel diciassettesimo secolo si dilettava di matematica ed era un po' buontempone, enunciò un teorema all'apparenza banale e lasciò scritto sul margine di una pagina di un libro:

“Dispongo di una meravigliosa dimostrazione di questo teorema, che non può essere contenuta nel margine stretto della pagina”

Il teorema era banale, come pure l'affermazione. Non poteva che scaturirne una dimostrazione banale.

Eppure...

La dimostrazione di quell'equazione banale fece perdere il sonno alle maggiori menti matematiche di tutto il mondo, che per 350 anni si arrovellarono per trovare una soluzione. Risultati: zero.

Cos'è una dimostrazione? In matematica si ritiene che un teorema sia dimostrato quando con un procedimento logico se ne fornisce inequivocabilmente e incontestabilmente la correttezza.

"La ricerca di una dimostrazione matematica è la ricerca di una conoscenza che è più assoluta della conoscenza accumulata da ogni altra disciplina. Il desiderio di una verità definitiva ottenuta attraverso il metodo della dimostrazione è ciò che ha guidato i matematici negli ultimi duemilacinquecento anni."

Solo nel 1993 un matematico inglese, Andrew Wiles, dopo sette anni di sforzi, ossessioni, notti insonni, incubi, entusiasmi e delusioni riuscì a completare la dimostrazione.

Possibile che Fermat avesse trovato una dimostrazione a questo teorema? No, impossibile crederlo; la dimostrazione di Wiles è composta da 200 pagine di matematica estremamente complessa che non poteva assolutamente essere disponibile al tempo di Fermat e che alla fine però è servita anche ad approfondire intere branche della matematica.

Ecco, il libro spiega la storia di questa dimostrazione e dei grandi matematici che ci hanno lavorato, spiega la bellezza delle sfide matematiche, l'ostinazione e la determinazione richiesta, l'inventiva necessaria e la potenza di un risultato che diventa "eterno".

La storia di questa dimostrazione è decisamente interessante; per me l'unica carenza nel libro è l'autore, che è "solo" un giornalista e che, poraccio, di matematica ci capisce come io di taglio e cucito. E trasforma la storia in una telecronaca; per consentire ai profani di capire gli aspetti legati alla successione degli eventi dà per scontate parecchie cose (pur riportandole) rinunciando a spiegare con semplicità, forse perché nemmeno lui ci ha capito un granché.

Cartesio disse:"quando sono in discussione questioni trascendentali, siate chiari in modo trascendentale".

Ecco Singh chiaro non è. Inutile per me riportare frasi come "Tutto quello che devi fare è aggiungere qualche gamma-zero di struttura (M) e poi ti basta ripercorrere la tua argomentazione ed ecco che funziona" se non se ne spiega il significato. O si omette la frase, o la si spiega.

Riesce pure a mettere errori di matematica nelle definizioni che, mi dispiace, in un libro di matematica noooooo, proprio non accetto!.

In ogni caso la storia è affascinante e il libro riesce a trasmettere interesse e curiosità per la matematica e per queste persone meravigliose che si sono prodigate per trovare soluzioni a problemi veramente complessi.
Fermat era un buontempone e ci ha preso in giro per 350 anni. Ma senza di lui, oggi le nostre conoscenze matematiche sarebbero certamente inferiori...
Profile Image for Rise.
302 reviews37 followers
January 17, 2016
From my reading journal:

May 31, 2009.
Yesterday I finished readingFermat's Last Theorem.I plan to write a glowing book review but this space is too limited to contain it.

Profile Image for Gorab.
739 reviews126 followers
September 23, 2022
The best mathematical nonfiction thriller I've ever read!



Consider this equation: x^n + y^n = z^n (where x,y,z,n are natural numbers with n>2)
Fermat stated that the above equation has no solutions.
It’s the simplicity of this theorem which is elusive of the nature of its difficulty to be proved!

Stated around 1637, Fermat had scribbled this theorem with a note in the margin - "I have a truly marvelous demonstration of this proposition which this margin is too narrow to contain."
This theorem and other notes were published posthumously by his son. Till date, nobody is aware of the proof that Fermat would have concocted in his mind!

With modern mathematical tools and researches, this theorem which remained unsolved for more than 350 years was finally proved in 1995 by Andrew Wiles.
This book is a tale of how this theorem was pursued for centuries and finally how it was proved.

Loved:
The context setting and remarkable background stories.
Fun trivia on numbers - and how mathematics is the language of nature.
The depth into which many great minds delved and devoted their entire life.

Recommended:
If you've ever been intrigued by Mathematics, this is a must read.
You don't necessarily need to have a grip on Maths to enjoy this book. Explained in layman terms, detailed mathematical proofs and footnotes are all confined to the Appendix section, for the curious minds.

Notes:
How I picked this book - A friend sent greetings at 5:29PM mentioning special time. Though I knew about the magic number, but somehow this message helped me traverse down the rabbit hole.
Ramanujan -> Magic Number -> Taxicab Number -> Fermat near misses -> Fermat's last Theorem... and from thereon it was a different world altogether!

Then last month, I went shopping books on behalf of friends. Someone picked these, which I ended up reading before sending:) [thank you!]
Profile Image for Joy D.
2,420 reviews274 followers
September 26, 2022
“The definition of a good mathematical problem is the mathematics it generates rather than the problem itself.”

Fermat's Last Theorem states that: xⁿ + yⁿ = zⁿ has no whole number solutions for any integer n greater than 2. Simon Singh fashions the quest to solve this 350-year-old mathematical enigma into a compelling story. In the 1630s, when Pierre de Fermat scribbled a note on a page of his copy of Diophantus’s Arithmetica, stating (in Latin) his theorem and indicating “I have a truly marvelous demonstration of this proposition, which this margin is too narrow to contain.” Singh takes the reader through a series of minibiographies of past mathematicians, ultimately arriving at Andrew Wiles, who spent over eight years developing the 130-page proof.

Along the way, the reader will learn a great deal about number theory, logic, and the rigorous standards required to achieve an absolute proof. This book covers a wide variety of people and their contributions over the years, such as Pythagoras, Leonhard Euler, Sophie Germain, Gabriel Lame’, Augustin Cauchy, Ernst Kummer, David Hilbert, Kurt Godel, Alan Turing, Goro Shimura, and Yutaka Taniyama.

The highlight of the book is, of course, Andrew Wiles who discovered Fermat’s Last Theorem at the age of ten, and dedicated himself to figuring out a proof, no matter how long it took. Wiles decided to keep his work secret and work alone in his attic.“You might ask how could I devote an unlimited amount of time to a problem that might simply not be soluble. The answer is that I just loved working on this problem and I was obsessed. I enjoyed pitting my wits against it.”

We learn about the Shimura-Taniyama conjecture, and the relationship between elliptic curves and modular forms. Singh never gets bogged down with calculations – they are instead included in the Appendices. I have a background in mathematics, so this type of subject matter appeals to me, but I daresay it is not required to enjoy this story of challenge, perseverance, and discovery.

4.5
Profile Image for عبدالرحمن عقاب.
729 reviews886 followers
January 31, 2024
كتاب رياضي ماتع. لم أتوقع أن أستمتع بقراءة هذا الكتاب إلى هذا الحد!
يكتب فيرما في القرن السابع عشر على هامش كتاب رياضي معادلة. ويقول أنه لا حلّ لهذه المعادلة. وأنّ لديه برهاناً لا مساحة له في هذا الهامش ليكتبه!
لسنوات طوال؛ يظلّ الرياضيون يحاولون إثبات قوله أو تفنيده. ويصيبهم الإحباط في كلّ مرة. وتخبو جذوة البحث زمناً لكنها تعود. إلى أن نصل إلى العام 1995. حيث تُثبت نهائيا بإدخال قوانين الرياضيات الحديثة والتخيلية جداً!
وكأني بهاته المبرهنة مثال حقيقي لشعر أبي الطيب المتنبي:
أَنامُ مِلءَ جُفوني عَن شَوارِدِها..... وَيَسهَرُ الخَلقُ جَرّاها وَيَختَصِمُ
وكأنّ فيرما لم ينم فحسب، بل مات ملء جفونه وبلى عظامه؛ وبقي الناس –وليسوا أي ناس- يسهرون جراها ويختصمون.

يأخذنا الكاتب الماهر "سايمون سينج" في هذه الرحلة الفكرية المدهشة. وفي استطرادات رائعة، نعيش مع رياضيين كثر في أزمنة مختلفة، باهتماماتهم وأسئلتهم وكشوفاتهم.
سيحب هذا الكتاب من يحبّ الرياضيات، ومن يحبّ قراءة السير، ومن يحبّ متابعة المغامرات الفكرية التي يُسلمها كلّ جيل إلى الذي يليه.

ترجمة الكتاب ممتازة، فشكراً للمترجمة "الزهراء سامي" على ترجمتها الزاهرة.
وشكر واجب لمؤسسة هنداوي الفكرية التي أسعدتنا بإصدار هذا الكتاب.
Profile Image for Shivam Chaturvedi.
45 reviews110 followers
March 22, 2019
I never watched any documentaries before going to college (and this was about a century and a half ago.. I am getting old -_-. But yeah, 2009 to be precise). I was always interested in NatGeo and History Channel - but they never showed the real deal on television. The documentaries would be mostly half assed, and at worst, total crap. That's also how Indian television landscape can be broadly categorized too, give or take a few exceptions ofcourse. And so I grew up loving the sciences based on what was taught in school curriculum, and elsewhere what I read on the slow 64-bit internet connection.

And then college happened. Parents got me my own laptop - and the college intranet had a ton of stuff that other students shared. That place and that time - was where my love for documentaries was born. I had never been so fascinated with anything before. And the first two that I watched - in a long line of them - wereEinstein's Biggest Blunderand BBC'sFermat's Last Theorem.The memory of that sunday afternoon is still pretty fresh.

Back then, I only had a casual interest in astronomy and cosmology, and Einstein's theories were still something exotic. And so I basically understood jackshit from the first documentary. Even more intrigued than before, I started the second one.Fermat's Last Theoremwas much more relatable - I had known the theorem, and understood the concept too.

Years later when I joined goodreads, I found out that there was a book too. Keeping in with the tradition of firsts, it became the first book on my TBR pile too. Where it stayed until a few days ago - and I finally marked it as read last night.

To be honest, this isn't the greatest book ever. It isnt even Simon Singh's best, who delivered the goods the much better inBig Bang.But it surely captures the essence of all mathematical and scientific endeavor very well -That every once in a while, in the middle of an ordinary life,sciencegives us a fairytale
Profile Image for Raquel.
391 reviews
March 13, 2021
Belas histórias de amor. Do amor dos homens por um teorema: o último Teorema de Fermat.
Uma odisseia matemática cheia de beleza, frustração e triunfo. Não é apenas a história do genial Andrew Wiles; esta é a história dos homens que amam a matemática. Sem fins utilitários, sem pretensões. De Pitágoras a Wiles, de 1637 a 1994.
A Fermat faltou espaço naquela página para fazer a sua brilhante demonstração, mas às posteriores gerações de matemáticos não faltou coragem. Será que Fermat estava, mais uma vez, certo?
Esta obra, embora aborde conceitos matemáticos [alguns com um elevado grau de complexidade como a conjectura Taniyama-Shimura] e apresente reflexões que exigem um apurado raciocínio abstracto [sobretudo nesta área de matemática pura] não pretende excluir aqueles que não se encontram entre os poucos eleitos que compreendem perfeitamente a linguagem dos números. A leitura, às vezes, apresenta algumas dificuldades (ultrapassáveis) mas vale muito a pena. Uma obra muito bela e que nos encanta.

Para saber um bocadinho mais:https://seromoluntdeorummolae.blogspo...


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"El recuerdo de Arquímedes persistirá cuando Esquilo esté ya olvidado, porque las lenguas mueren y los conceptos matemáticos no. Inmortalidad es tal vez un término estúpido, pero quizá un matemático posea las mayores probabilidades de alcanzarla, sea cual sea su significado." [G.H.Hardy]
Profile Image for Boudewijn.
756 reviews146 followers
June 2, 2022
This is a very interesting book. Don't be scared about the contents, it's an enjoyable read even if you don't know anything about mathematics.
July 8, 2024
4-Stars - I Really Liked It
I first read this as a paperback in about 2000. I also listened to an (unfortunately abridged) audiobook narrated by David Rintoul in about 2008, prior to my joining Goodreads in 2011.
I cannot competently write a review now about "Fermat's Last Theorem", but I do remember that I enjoyed very much both reading and hearing this most interesting book.
Profile Image for Arelis Uribe.
Author7 books1,494 followers
February 19, 2017
Había leído parte de este libro cuando estudiaba periodismo, gracias a Alejandra Carmona, una profe muy inquieta que daba el ramo de Antropología y que siempre llegaba con lecturas nuevas y actuales. Por ella descubrí no sólo a autores “académicos”, como Lévi-Strauss y Ángel Rama, sino a escritores que cruzan el periodismo con la etnografía y la literatura, como Martín Caparrós y Simon Singh, autor de El Último Teorema de Fermat. Es un libro hermoso, como hermosas son las matemáticas y como hermoso es el problema que heredó Fermat a sus colegas por más de 300 años y como hermosa es la historia de traiciones, desafíos y sueños que están ligados a este acertijo matemático.
Este es un libro que mezcla la investigación científica, el periodismo y la literatura. Aprendí un montón leyéndolo. Está escrito (y traducido) con una prosa limpia, liviana y sencilla, algo muy difícil de lograr, sobre todo cuando se explican temas intrincados, como las matemáticas. Salvo por el exceso de adverbios de mente (que, ay, me ponen medio mal) es un placer leer las explicaciones complejas de manera tan amable.
Pienso que la matemática son un universo de lógica, absolutismos y armonía de un nivel superior. Como toda disciplina y todo arte, aspira a la belleza y los matemáticos lo saben, persiguen la belleza de la perfección de los números y le achacan a este universo propiedades como la bondad o la amistad, todo a partir de patrones numéricos. Se me ocurre que mucha de la filosofía matemática refleja la moral de sus autores y, al mismo tiempo, describen también las relaciones humanas y la vida.
Me gustó mucho que el autor se hiciera cargo, en un apartado, del sesgo histórico de género que han acompañado las matemáticas. “A través de los siglos las mujeres han sido desanimadas a estudiar matemáticas, pero a pesar de la discriminación, ha habido varias matemáticas que lucharon contra esa costumbre institucionalizada e inscribieron sus nombres en forma indeleble en los anales de las matemáticas”. Y nombra a Hipatia de Alejandría o Sophie Germain, que tuvo que usar el pseudónimo de Monsieur Le Blanc para que tomaran en serio su trabajo. Cuando ella debió revelar su identidad, un destacado matemático (que fue su maestro sin saber que ella no era hombre) escribió: “Cuando una persona del sexo que, de acuerdo con nuestras costumbres y prejuicios, debe encontrar infinitamente más dificultades para familiarizarse con estas espinosas investigaciones, tiene éxito en superar estos obstáculos y penetrar las partes más oscuras de ellas, entonces sin ninguna duda debe tener el más noble coraje, talentos verdaderamente extraordinarios y una genialidad superior”.
Cuando yo estaba en octavo básico era muy porra. Me iba mal en el colegio. No estudiaba demasiado. Ese mismo año me puse a pololear con un chico dos años mayor que yo, que era escandalosamente estudioso. Me acuerdo cuando me explicó las potencias. Yo me había sacado un rojo en la prueba y él, con mucha paciencia y amor, me explicó esta materia que en realidad es súper fácil y entretenida. De ahí en adelante me puse igual de odiosa y matea que él. Salí de cuarto medio con promedio 6,9 en matemática. Después estudié periodismo y olvidé los números, pero al leer este libro recordé por qué me gustaban tanto, por qué disfrutaba más resolviendo facsímiles de la PSU de matemáticas que viendo Los Simpsons. Hay tanta perfección en los números, tantos juegos posibles.
El libro se trata de cómo se resolvió el problema matemático más famoso de la historia: el teorema de Fermat, que sostiene que no hay soluciones posibles al teorema de Pitágoras cuando la potencia es mayor a 2. El libro explica, también, porque esa demostración es tan endemoniada y difícil. La belleza del problema es que Fermat dijo tener una demostración, pero que no la podía escribir en el margen de un libro, ya que ese espacio era muy pequeño. En rigor, no existía la demostración (no existe, nadie ha visto jamás la demostración de Fermat). Era y es una especie de eslabón perdido de las matemáticas. 350 años después, Andrew Wiles plantearía su propia solución, una muy compleja y elegante, que unifica las matemáticas y que se sirve de todas las etapas de esta ciencia para lograrlo. Al final, el libro cuenta esa historia y también repasa miles de años de epistemología de las matemáticas.
Algunas cosas bellísimas que se leen en este libro:
— “Pitágoras había descubierto que unas proporciones numéricas simples eran responsables de la armonía de la música”.
— “La razón entre la longitud real de los ríos desde su nacimiento hasta su desembocadura y su longitud en línea recta (…) es aproximadamente 3,14: número cercano al valor de π”.
— “Las matemáticas son el lenguaje que permite describir la naturaleza del universo”.
— “La razón por la cual se le atribuye el teorema a Pitágoras es porque fue él quien primero demostró su validez universal”.
— “La llamada demostración científica depende de la observación y la percepción, las cuales son falibles y sólo suministran aproximaciones (…) [la demostración matemática] tiene una verdad más profunda que cualquier otra verdad, porque es el resultado de un proceso lógico. Las matemáticas son una materia de estudio no subjetiva (…) independiente de la opinión”. Es decir, una demostración matemática es una verdad absoluta y se aplica para un caso específico como para todos los de su serie hasta el infinito. Es loca esa hueá, ojalá las ciencias sociales funcionaran así.
— “Fermat y Pascal habrían de descubrir las primeras demostraciones y certezas absolutas de la teoría de la probabilidad, una materia que es, en esencia, incierta”.
— “[Pascal] sostuvo que ‘la emoción que un apostador siente cuando hace una apuesta es igual a la cantidad que puede ganar multiplicada por la probabilidad de que gane”.
— “El primer director del departamento de matemáticas (de la Universidad de Alejandría) fue, ni más ni menos, Euclides”.
—Sobre la destrucción de la biblioteca de Alejandría: “En el año 642, un ataque musulmán culminó con éxito aquello en lo que los cristianos habían fracasado”. Quemaron todo por fanatismo dogmático. Maldita religión.
— “El crecimiento de cualquier disciplina depende de su capacidad para comunicar y desarrollar ideas”.
— “Los números amigos son parejas de números tales que cada uno de ellos es igual a la suma de los divisores del otro”.
— “[En matemática] las ideas no corroboradas son infinitamente menos valiosas y se conocen como conjeturas”.
— “Es impensable para los matemáticos no poder, al menos en teoría, contestar todas las preguntas, y esta necesidad se llama completud”.
— “Los teóricos de los números consideran a los números primos como los más importantes de todos, porque son los átomos de las matemáticas”.
— “Dios existe puesto que las matemáticas son consistentes, y el diablo existe puesto que no podemos demostrarlo”, André Weil.
—Sobre Galois, un maestro escribió: “la locura matemática domina a este muchacho”.
— “Cuando se discuten cuestiones trascendentales, hay que ser trascendentalmente claro”.
— Y la frase que escribió Wiles cuando terminó su demostración del teorema de Fermat frente a la comunidad matemática más importante: “Creo que me detendré aquí” <3
Profile Image for Sol González.
Author20 books38 followers
September 19, 2012
Lectura en 2012

Este año tomé nuevamente el libro del Enigma de Fermat, símplemente porque me gustó bastante

Las matemáticas fueron una de esas cosas con las que siempre tuve un romance eterno. Leyendo nuevamente pude recordar esos episodios en clases en que el maestro en turno llegó un día y anotó este mismo teorema en la pizarra. Nos dejó toda la clase tratando de solucionarlo y obviamente al final nos informó que el mismo no estaba resuelto (o al menos eso recuerdo, porque en ese año ya debería de haber estado).

Mas detalladamente me hizo recordar a varios amigos que hacían las demostraciones de distintas fórmulas y me las entregaban como si fueran cartas románticas (todavía las guardo).

La forma en que esta escrita, en ningún momento te hace sentir tedio. Agus dice que son mas bien chismorreos alrededor de la vida de los matemáticos (según como se lo iba contando), y precisamente eso es lo que lo hace interesante. Es la vida de personas que significaron algo para que este teorema existiera y para que finalmente fuera solucionado.

El gran enigma matemático ha muerto.

(en serio, leanlo)

................................................
Lectura en 2006

Finalmente llegamos a lo que fué mi último libro del año (2006 para los despistados). Durante las fiestas me encontré en casa de mis abuelos, y el apartado en donde vive mi hermana, actuaria y fanática de las matemáticas. Lo lamentable es que la mayor parte de los libros que lee yo se los recomiendo, así que la mayoría de los que encontré en su librero ya los había leído.

Encontré tres libros entre los cuales elegir, sin embargo este brillo llamando mi atención debido a una anécdota. Cuando mi hermana todavía estudiaba, viajaba a casa en autobús cada dos o tres meses. Entre sus compañeras hubo una que le presto este libro y en una ocasión el libro viajó con ella… sin embargo hay que añadir que mi hermana es algo despistada así que en esa ocasión el libro quedó en el autobús. No sé qué fué lo que le ha dado más coraje en esa ocasión, perder un libro prestado o no poder seguirlo leyendo. Tuvo que comprarlo para devolverlo y además se compró su propia edición (que todavía le tengo que devolver).

El enigma de Fermat es una novela de matemáticas. Mediante un poco de historia Singh nos va narrando la evolución de las matemáticas como un arte, muy lejos de aquellas matemáticas aplicadas. Las matemáticas como algo abstracto que es hermoso por sí mismo, porque tiene un orden y una lógica, porque en sí misma engloba misterios y permite que los descubras mediante una relación con ella.

Declaro que de niña me gustaba leer el Baldor y en mi último año de preparatoria acabé con todas las operaciones integrales en todos mis libros (y no tenía sólo dos) y este libro ha sido recordar las horas que le dediqué.

Que hermosas eran para mí las matemáticas.
Fue un hermoso fin de año.
Profile Image for Veronica.
80 reviews77 followers
June 29, 2021
Why do variables love mathematics?
y₀

(My head says rationally: Veronica, Goodreads is not a place for the corny wisecracks that you come up with during the day. My heart says differently.)
Profile Image for Campbell Mcaulay.
47 reviews5 followers
October 4, 2011
If you buy the latest Jilly Cooper instead of this you WILL go to hell!


This one languished on my bookshelf for the best part of a year as I was too scared to pick it up & start it. What held me back is what will probably put a lot of other potential readers off trying it - the boring old "I'm no good at maths" argument. Although my maths education is probably little above average (a good O Level and a terrible A Level, after which I rallied somewhat to obtain a reasonable HNC maths module) it's //very// many years out of use and it's all I can do to add two numbers up in my head. Given that this book is about a problem that flummoxed the best mathematical minds in the world for over 350 years you'd be forgiven for putting this back on the shelf and choosing something a little simpler. Well, don't even try that...

YOU DON'T NEED ANY MATHS TO READ THIS!

What Singh has done here is to present a hugely complex subject in a hugely entertaining way. The search for the answer to Fermat's riddle reads like a detective story and not a matehematical treatise and it includes a truly absorbing potted history of the development of maths over the years and, from Pythagoras to Fermat to Godel to Wiles, each part has a fascinating human side to it.

Budding mathematicians needn't feel left out as the mechanics of the maths is also included, but it's treated in a gentle way: each step of the problem (and it's solution) is described in a simplified (but certainly not dumbed down) manner and some simple exercises are included in several short appendices. However, take heart! There are several places where elements of the maths are obviously too complex for us mortals and Singh is not afraid to say soo and then gloss over them completely. That may be a disappointment to some, but it's not at all unreasonable in my opinion.

All in all, the net result is a book that is sensitive to its readers, intelligent, interesting and important. It's literally unputdownable and it had the added bonus of tricking me into thinking that I'm a little cleverer than I really am.

I notice there's an inevitable Wills and Kate bio on the bestseller list at the moment. Put your hard earned cash into Andrew Morton's pockets or read something that will make you feel like a genius. The choice is yours.
Profile Image for Γιώργος Πισίνας.
50 reviews8 followers
June 13, 2018
Αρχικά να πούμε ότι δεν είναι λογοτεχνία. Μου το είχαν προτείνει μαζί με κάποια βιβλία επιστημονικής φαντασίας και συνεπώς περίμενα κάτι αντίστοιχο. Αυτός ήταν και ο λόγος που το παράτησα στην πρώτη απόπειρα.

Όμως, είναι μια εξαιρετική και απλοϊκή ιστορία των μαθηματικών σε σχεδόν λογοτεχνική απόδοση. Σίγουρα δεν μαθαίνει κάποιος μαθηματικά με αυτό το βιβλίο,
αλλά μπορεί να έρθει σε επαφή με τις πλέον σύγχρονες μορφές τους χωρίς ιδιαίτερες γνώσεις.
Σε τελική ανάλυση η ιστορία με συνεπήρε και το βιβλίο σίγουρα άξιζε την δεύτερη ευκαιρία που του έδωσα.
Profile Image for David.
746 reviews147 followers
July 13, 2022
Its a simple problem: x^n + y^n = z^n has no positive integer solutions (xyz) for n>2. So why is it so hard to prove? (or disprove). I'm a math/physics nerd so this book has great appeal. I also like Simon Singh's technical writing. He stayed 100% on track as he traced Pythagoras in 6 BC to Andrew Wiles proof in 1994.

We all remember 3-4-5 triangles from geometry/trig, right? Pythagorean Theorem says 3^2 + 4^2 = 5^2. Other famous right triangle uses of these are the 5-12-13 or the 7-24-25, or how about 99-4900 - 4901. So why can't a version of this with cubes, or ^4 or ^5 work?

Andrew Wiles readThe Last Problemby Eric Bell when he was 10. He ultimately left Cambridge, England became a math professor at Princeton.

The text kept moving at a strong pace. The greatest minds in math all came into play, with their own focus and contribution to solving this problem. Pierre de Fermat lived 1607-1665. The mathematicians before him that get mentioned all contributed to number theory that had direct bearing on this ultimate math problem. Fermat has scribbled in the margins that he knew the proof, but it simply wouldn't fit in the margins.

Even as computers came into being, the 'brute force' method of MANY trials (with none working) could solve this problem. For even if a million numbers were tried, maybe the next one could work. What was needed was a full mathematical logical proof.

Solid 4.5*. If you like math/physics, then easy 5. If not, then round down to a very readable 4.
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